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IFOREST  RESOURCES, 
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THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  DATE 
INDICATED  BELOW  AND  IS  SUB- 
JECT TO  AN  OVERDUE  FINE  AS 
POSTED  AT  THE  CIRCULATION 
DESK. 


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TREES  WORTH  KNOWING 


..    BEND    IN     ilii.    lU.UL 


Little  Nature  Library 

TREES 

WORTH    KNOWING 

By  JUIIA  ELLEN  ROGERS 


{Author  of  The  Tree  Book,  The  Tree  Guide,  Trees 
Every  Child  Should  Know,  The  Book  of  Useful 
.  Flants»  The  Shell  Book,  etc.,  etc.) 


With  forty-eight  illustrations,  sixteen  being  in  color 

rmST  FR-^n'^TTEITTAN  CHURCH 
WEbli  IKLD,  NEW  YORK  ^-" 

PUBLISHED   BY 

DOUBLEDAY,  PAGE  &  COMPANY 

FOR 

NELSON  DOUBLEDAY.  Inc. 

1922 


Copyright,  1917,  by 
DOUBLEDAY,  PaGE  &  CoMPANT 

Atl  rights  reserved,  including  that  of 

translation  into  foreign  languages^ 

induding  the  Scandinavian 


PRINTED  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 

AT 

THE  COUNTRY  LIFE  JPRESS,  GARDEN  CITV,  N.  Y. 


CONTENTS 

VAom 

Introduction xi 

PARTI 
The  Life  OF  THE  Trees 5 

PART  II 

The  Nut  Trees «S 

The  Walnuts;  The  Hickories;  The  Beech;  The 
Chestnuts;  The  Oaks;  The  Horse-chestnuts;  The 
Lindens 

PART  III 

Water-loving  Trees 75 

The  Poplars;  The  W^illows;  The  Hornbeams;  The 
Birches;  The  Alders;  The  Sycamores;  The  Gum 
Trees;  The  Osage  Orange 

PART  IV 

Trees  With  Shoavy  Flowers  AND  Fruits  .  .  .  101 
The  Magnolias;  The  Dogwoods;  The  Vibur- 
nums; The  Mountain  Ashes;  The  Rhododendron; 
The  Mountain  Laurel;  The  Madrona;  The  Sorrel 
Tree;  The  Silver  Bell  Trees;  The  Sweet  Leaf;  The 
Fringe   Twja;   The   Laurel   Family;   The  Witch 


vi  CONTENTS 

PACaB 

Hazel;  The  Burning  Bush;  The  Sumachs;  The 
Smoke  Tree;  The  Holhes 

PART  V 

Wild  Relatives  OF  Our  Orchard  Trees     .      .      .     147 
The    Apples;    The    Plums;    The   Cherries;    The 
Hawthorns;  The  Service-berries;  The  Hackberries; 
The   Mulberries;    The   Figs;    The  Papaws;  The 
Pond  Apples;  The  Persimmons 

PART  VI 

The  Pod-bearing  Trees 176 

The  Locusts;  The  Acacias;  Miscellaneous  Species 

PART  VII 

Deciduous  Trees  with  Winged  Seeds  ....     193 
The  Maples;  The  Ashes;  The  Ehns 

PART  vm 

The  Cone-bearing  Evergreens 217 

The  Pines;  The  Spruces;  The  Firs;  The  Douglas 
Spruce;  The  Hemlocks;  The  Sequoias;  The  Arbor- 
vitaes;  The  Incense  Cedar;  The  Cypresses;  The 
Junipers;  The  Larches 

PART  IX 
The  Palms 280 

General  Index 283 


LIST  OF  COLORED  ILLUSTRATIONS 


PAGE 


Canoe  or  Paper  Birch On  Cover 

A  Bend  in  the  Trail         Frontispiece 

Shagbark  Hickory 6 

MocKERNUT  Fruit  and  Leaves 7 

A  Grove  of  Beeches 22 

Chestnut  Tree 23 

Weeping  Beech 30 

Black  Walnut 31 

White  Oak 38 

Bur  or  Mossy-cup  Oak  Leaves  and  Fruit     .     .  39 

Horse-chestnut  in  Blossom 54 

Weeping  Willow 55 

Tulip  Tree,  Flower  and  Leaves 103 

Flowering  Dogwood        118 

American  Elm 215 

Eastern  Red  Cedars  and  Hickory       ....  230 


LIST  OF  OTHER  ILLUSTRATIONS 


PAGE 

Black  Walnut  Shoots 70 

Shagbark  Hickory 71 

American  Linden  Leaves  and  Fruit  ...  86 

Trembling  Aspen  Catkins  and  Leaves    .      .  86-87 

Pussy  Willow  Flowers 86-87 

American  Hornbeam — A  Fruiting  Branch    .  87 

The  Tattered,  Silky  Bark  of  the  Birches  102 

Sycamore  Bark  and  Seed-balls     ....  102-103 
Bark,  Seeds,  and  Seed-balls  of  the  Sweet 

Gmi 102-103 

Osage  Orange  Leaves,  AND  Flowers  ...  119 
Dogwood  Bark,  Blossom,  Fruit,  and  Buds  134 
Mountain  Ash  Flowers  and  Leaves  ...  135 
Sassafras  Flowers,  Fruit,  and  Leaves  .  .  150 
Foliage  and  Flowers  of  the  Smooth  Slmach  150-151 
Buds,  Leaves,  and  Fruit  of  the  Wild  Crab- 
apple       150-151 

Canada  Plum — Flowers  and  Trunk    ...  151 

Wild  Black  Cherry — Flowers  and  Fruit  166 

Fruiting  Branch  of  Cockspur  Thorn     .      .  167 

Service-berry  Tree  in  Blossom    ....  182 

Hackberry — Flowers,    Fruit,   and    Leaves  183 

ix 


X  LIST  OF  OTHER  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

Honey  Locust's  Trunk,  and  Black  Locust's 

Flowers  AND  Leaves 198 

Sugar  Maple         19&-199 

Red  IMaple  Flowers 198-199 

Seed  Keys  and  New  Leaves  of  Soft  or 

Silver  Maple          199 

White  Ash  Buds  and  Flowers       ....  214 

A  Group  of  White  Pines 214-215 

Shortleaf  Pine  Cones  and  Needles  .      .      .  214-215 

The  Sugar  Pine 231 

Leaves  and  Cones  of  Hemlock  and  of  Nor- 
way Spruce 243 

Blu-^ck  Spruce  Cones  and  Needles     .      .      .  247 

Spray  of  Arbor- vitae 262 

American  Larch  Cones  and  Needles      .     .  263 


INTRODUCTION 


INTRODUCTION 

OcxjASioNALLY  I  meet  a  person  who  says :  "I  know  noth- 
ing at  all  about  trees/'  This  modest  disclaimer  is  generally 
sincere,  but  it  has  always  turned  out  to  be  untrue.  "Oh, 
well,  that  old  sugar  maple,  I've  always  known  that  tree. 
We  used  to  tap  all  the  sugar  maples  on  the  place  every 
spring."  Or  again:  "Everybody  knows  a  white  birch  by 
its  bark."  "Of  course,  anybody  who  has  ever  been  chest- 
nutting  knows  a  chestnut  tree."  Most  people  know  Lom- 
bardy  poplars,  those  green  exclamation  points  so  com- 
monly planted  in  long  soldierly  rows  on  roadsides  and 
boundary  hues  in  many  parts  of  the  country.  Willows, 
too,  everybody  knows  are  willows.  The  best  nut  trees, 
the  shagbark,  chestnut,  and  butternut,  need  no  formal  in- 
troduction. The  honey  locust  has  its  striking  three- 
pronged  thorns,  and  its  purple  pods  dangling  in  win- 
ter and  skating  off  over  the  snow.  The  beech  has  its 
smooth,  close  bark  of  Quaker  gray,  and  nobody  needs 
to  look  for  further  evidence  to  determine  this  tree's 
name. 

So  it  is  easily  proved  that  each  person  has  a  good  nucleus 
of  tree  knowledge  around  which  to  accumulate  more.  If 
people  have  the  love  of  nature  in  their  hearts — if  things  out 
of  doors  call  irresistibly,  at  any  season — it  will  not  really 
matter  if  their  lives  are  pinched  and  circumscribed.  Ways 
and  means  of  studying  trees  are  easily  found,  even  if  the 
scant  ends  of  busy  days  spent  indoors  are  all  the  time  at 


xiv  INTRODUCTION 

command.  If  there  is  energy  to  begin  the  midertaking  it  will 
soon  furnish  its  own  motive  power.  Tree  students,  like 
bird  students,  become  enthusiasts.  To  understand  their 
enthusiasm  one  must  follow  their  examples. 

The  beginner  doesn't  know  exactly  how  and  where  to 
begin.  There  are  great  collections  of  trees  here  and  there. 
The  Arnold  Arboretum  in  Boston  is  the  great  dendrological 
Noah's  Ark  in  this  country.  It  contains  almost  all  the 
trees,  American  and  foreign,  which  will  grow  in  that 
region.  The  Shaw  Botanical  Garden  at  St.  Louis  is  the 
largest  midland  assemblage  of  trees.  Parks  in  various 
cities  bring  together  as  large  a  variety  of  trees  as  possible, 
and  these  are  often  labelled  with  their  English  and  botani- 
cal names  for  the  benefit  of  the  public. 

Yet  the  places  for  the  beginner  are  his  own  dooryard,  the 
streets  he  travels  four  times  a  day  to  his  work,  and  woods 
for  his  holiday,  though  they  need  not  be  forests.  Arboreta 
are  for  his  delight  when  he  has  gained  some  acquaintance 
\\ath  the  tree  families.  But  not  at  first.  The  trees  may 
all  be  set  out  in  tribes  and  families  and  labelled  with  their 
scientific  names.  They  will  but  confuse  and  discourage 
him.  There  is  not  time  to  make  their  acquaintance. 
They  overwhelm  with  the  mere  number  of  kinds.  Great 
arboreta  and  parks  are  very  scarce.  Trees  are  every- 
where. The  acquaintance  of  trees  is  within  the  reach  of 
all. 

First  make  a  plan  of  the  yard,  locating  and  naming  the 
trees  you  actually  know.  Extend  it  to  include  the  street, 
and  the  neighbors'  yards,  as  you  get  ready  for  them.  Be 
very  careful  about  giving  names  to  trees.  If  you  think 
you  know  a  tree,  ask  yourself  how  you  know  it.  Sift  out  all 
the  guesses,  and  the  hearsays,  and  begin  on  a  solid  f  ounda- 


INTRODUCTION  xv 

tion,  even  if  you  are  sure  about  only  the  sugar  maple  and 
the  white  birch. 

The  characters  to  note  in  studying  trees  are:  leaves, 
flowers,  fruits,  bark,  buds,  bud  arrangement,  leaf  scars,  and 
tree  form.  The  season  of  the  year  determines  which 
features  are  most  prominent.  Buds  and  leaf  scars  are  the 
most  unvarying  of  tree  characters.  In  winter  these  traits 
and  the  tree  frame  are  most  plainly  revealed.  Winter 
often  exhibits  tree  fruits  on  or  under  the  tree,  and  dead- 
leaf  studies  are  very  satisfactory.  Leaf  arrangement  may 
be  made  out  at  any  season,  for  leaf  scars  tell  this  story  after 
the  leaves  fall. 

Only  three  families  of  our  large  trees  have  opposite 
leaves.  This  fact  helps  the  beginner.  Look  first  at  the 
twigs.  If  the  leaves,  or  (in  winter)  the  buds  and  leaf 
scars,  stand  opposite,  the  tree  (if  it  is  of  large  size)  belongs 
to  the  maple,  ash,  or  horse-chestnut  family.  Our  native 
horse-chestnuts  are  buckeyes.  If  the  leaves  are  simple  the 
tree  is  a  maple;  if  pinnately  compound,  of  several  leaflets, 
it  is  an  ash;  if  palmately  compound,  of  five  to  seven  leaflets, 
it  is  a  horse-chestnut.  In  winter  dead  leaves  under  the 
trees  furnish  this  evidence.  The  winter  buds  of  the  horse- 
chestnut  are  large  and  waxy,  and  the  leaf  scars  look  like 
prints  of  a  horse's  hoof.  Maple  buds  are  small,  and  the 
leaf  scar  is  a  small,  narrow  crescent.  Ash  buds  are  dull 
and  blunt,  with  rough,  leathery  scales.  Maple  twigs  are 
slender.     Ash  and  buckeye  twigs  are  stout  and  clumsy. 

Bark  is  a  distinguishing  character  of  many  trees — of 
others  it  is  confusing.  The  sycamore,  shedding  bark  in 
sheets  from  its  limbs,  exposes  pale,  smooth  under  bark. 
The  tree  is  recognizable  by  its  mottled  appearance  winter 
or  summer.     The  corky  ridges  on  limbs  of  sweet  gmn  and 


xvi  INTRODUCTION 

bur  oak  are  easily  remembered  traits.  The  peculiar  hori- 
zontal peeling  of  bark  on  birches  designates  most  of  the 
genus.  The  prussic-acid  taste  of  a  twig  sets  the  cherry 
tribe  apart.  The  familiar  aromatic  taste  of  the  green 
twigs  of  sassafras  is  its  best  winter  character;  the  mitten- 
shaped  leaves  distinguish  it  in  summer. 

It  is  necessary  to  get  some  book  on  the  subject  to  dis- 
cover the  names  of  trees  one  studies,  and  to  act  as  teacher 
at  times.  A  book  makes  a  good  staff,  but  a  poor  crutch. 
The  eyes  and  the  judgment  are  the  dependable  things. 
In  spring  the  way  in  which  the  leaves  open  is  significant; 
so  are  the  flowers.  Every  tree  when  it  reaches  proper  age 
bears  flowers.  Not  all  bear  fruit,  but  blossoms  come  on 
every  tree.  In  summer  the  leaves  and  fruits  are  there  to 
be  examined.  In  autumn  the  ripening  fruits  are  the 
special  features. 

To  know  a  tree's  name  is  the  beginning  of  acquaintance 
— not  an  end  in  itself.  There  is  all  the  rest  of  one's  life  in 
which  to  follow  it  up.  Tree  friendships  are  very  precious 
things.  John  Muir,  writing  among  his  beloved  trees  of  the 
Yosemite  Valley,  adjures  his  world-weary  fellow  men  to 
seek  the  companionship  of  trees. 

"  To  learn  how  they  live  and  behave  in  pure  wildness,  to 
see  them  in  their  varying  aspects  through  the  seasons  and 
weather,  rejoicing  in  the  great  storms,  putting  forth  their 
new  leaves  and  flowers,  when  all  the  streams  are  in  flood, 
and  the  birds  singing,  and  sending  away  their  seeds  in  the 
thoughtful  Indian  summer,  when  all  the  landscape  is  glow- 
ing in  deep,  calm  enthusiasm — for  this  you  must  love  them 
and  live  with  them,  as  free  from  schemes  and  care  and 
time  as  the  trees  themselves." 


INTRODUCTION  xvii 

Tree  Names 

Two  Latin  words,  written  in  italics,  with  a  cabalistic 
abbreviation  set  after  them,  are  a  stumbling  block  on  the 
page  to  the  reader  unaccustomed  to  scientific  lore.  He  re- 
sents botanical  names,  and  demands  to  know  the  tree's 
name  in  "plain  English."  Trees  have  both  common  and 
scientific  names,  and  each  has  its  use.  Common  names 
were  applied  to  important  trees  by  people,  the  world  over, 
before  science  was  born.  Many  trees  were  never  noticed 
by  anybody  until  botanists  discovered  and  named  them. 
They  may  never  get  common  names  at  all. 

A  name  is  a  description  reduced  to  its  lowest  terms.  It 
consists  usually  of  a  surname  and  a  descriptive  adjective: 
Mary  Jones,  white  oak,  Quercus  alba.  Take  the  oaks,  for 
example,  and  let  us  consider  how  they  got  their  names, 
common  and  scientific.  All  acorn-bearing  trees  are  oaks. 
Thej^  are  found  in  Europe,  Asia,  and  America.  Their  use- 
fulness and  beauty  have  impressed  people  The  Britons 
called  them  by  a  word  which  in  our  modern  speech  is  oak, 
and  as  they  came  to  know  the  different  kinds,  they  added  a 
descriptive  word  to  the  name  of  each.  But  "plain 
English"  is  not  useful  to  the  Frenchman.  Chene  is  his 
name  for  the  acorn  trees.  The  German  has  his  Eiclien' 
baum,  the  Roman  had  his  Quercus,  and  who  knows  what 
the  Chinaman  and  the  H  ndoo  in  far  Cathay  or  the  Ameri- 
can Indian  called  these  trees  .'^  Common  names  made  the 
trouble  when  the  Tower  of  Babel  was  building. 

Latin  has  always  been  the  universal  language  of  scholars. 
It  is  dead,  so  that  it  can  be  depended  upon  to  remain  un- 
changed in  its  vocabulary  and  in  its  forms  and  usages. 
Scientific  names  are  exact,  and  remain  unchanged,  though 


xviii  INTRODUCTION 

an  article  or  a  book  using  them  may  be  translated  into  all 
the  modern  languages.  The  word  Quercus  clears  awa/ 
difficulties.  French,  English,  German  hearers  know  what 
trees  are  meant — or  they  know  just  where  in  books  of  their 
own  language  to  find  them  described. 

The  abbreviation  that  follows  a  scientific  name  tells  who 
first  gave  the  name.  "Linn."  is  frequently  noticed,  for 
Linnaeus  is  authority  for  thousands  of  plant  names. 

Two  sources  of  confusion  make  common  names  of  trees 
unreliable :  the  application  of  one  name  to  several  species, 
and  the  application  of  several  names  to  one  species.  To 
illustrate  the  first :  There  are  a  dozen  iron  woods  in  iVmeri- 
can  forests.  They  belong,  with  two  exceptions,  to  differ- 
ent genera  and  to  at  least  five  different  botanical  families. 
To  illustrate  the  second:  The  familiar  American  elm  is 
known  by  at  least  seven  local  popular  names.  The  bur 
oak  has  seven.  Many  of  these  are  applied  to  other  species. 
Three  of  the  five  native  elms  are  called  water  elm;  three 
are  called  red  elm;  three  are  called  rock  elm.  There  are 
seven  scrub  oaks.  Only  by  mentioning  the  scientific 
name  can  a  wTiter  indicate  with  exactness  which  species  he 
is  talking  about.  The  unscientific  reader  can  go  to  the 
botanical  manual  or  cyclopedia  and  under  this  name  find 
the  species  described. 

In  California  grows  a  tree  called  by  three  popular 
names:  leatherwood,  slippery  elm,  and  silver  oak.  Its 
name  is  Fremontia.  It  is  as  far  removed  from  elms  and 
oaks  as  sheep  are  from  cattle  and  horses.  But  the  names 
stick.  It  would  be  as  easy  to  eradicate  the  trees,  root  and 
branch,  from  a  region  as  to  persuade  people  to  abandon 
names  they  are  accustomed  to,  though  they  may  concede 
that  you  have  proved  these  names  incorrect,  or  meaning- 


INTRODUCTION  xix 

less,  or  vulgar.  Nicknames  like  nigger  pine,  lie  huckle- 
berry, she  balsam,  and  bull  bay  ought  to  be  dropped  by  all 
people  who  lay  claim  to  intelligence  and  taste. 

With  all  their  inaccuracies,  common  names  have  inter- 
esting histories,  and  the  good  ones  are  full  of  helpful  sug- 
gestion to  the  learner.  Many  are  literal  translations  of 
the  Latin  names.  The  first  writers  on  botany  wrote  in 
Latin.  Plants  were  described  under  the  common  name, 
if  there  was  one;  if  not,  the  plant  was  named.  The  differ- 
ent species  of  each  group  were  distinguished  by  the  descrip- 
tions and  the  drawings  that  accompanied  them.  Linnaeus 
attempted  to  bring  the  work  of  botanical  scholars  to- 
gether, and  to  publish  descriptions  and  names  of  all  known 
plants  in  a  single  volume.  This  he  did,  crediting  each 
botanist  with  his  work.  The  "Species  Plantarum," 
Linnaeus's  monumental  work,  became  the  foundation  of 
the  modern  science  of  botany,  for  it  included  all  the  plants 
known  and  named  up  to  the  time  of  its  publication.  This 
was  about  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

The  vast  body  of  information  which  the  "SjDecies 
Plantarum"  contained  was  systematically  arranged.  All 
the  different  species  in  one  genus  were  brought  together. 
They  w^ere  described,  each  under  a  number;  and  an 
adjective  word,  usually  descriptive  of  some  marked  char- 
acteristic, was  written  in  as  a  marginal  index. 

After  Linnaeus's  time  botanists  found  that  the  genus 
name  in  combination  with  this  marginal  word  made  a  con- 
venient and  exact  means  of  designating  the  plant.  Thus 
Linnaeus  became  the  acknowledged  originator  of  the 
binomial  (two-name)  system  of  nomenclature  now  in  use 
in  all  sciences.  It  is  a  delightful  coincidence  that  while 
Linnaeus  was  engaged  on  his  great  work.  North  America, 


XX  INTRODUCTION 

that  vast  new  field  of  botanical  exploration,  was  being 
traversed  by  another  Swedish  scientist.  Peter  Kalm  sent 
his  specimens  and  his  descriptive  notes  to  Linnaeus,  wko 
described  and  named  the  new  plants  in  his  book.  The 
specimens  swelled  the  great  herbarium  at  the  University 
of  Upsala. 

Among  trees  unknown  to  science  before  are  the  Mag- 
nolia, named  in  honor  of  the  great  French  botanist,  Mag- 
nol.  Robinia,  the  locust,  honors  another  French  botanist, 
Robin,  and  his  son.  Kalmia,  the  beautiful  mountain 
laurel,  immortahzes  the  name  of  the  devoted  explorer  who 
discovered  it. 

Inevitably,  duplication  of  names  attended  the  work 
of  the  early  scientists,  isolated  from  each  other,  and 
far  from  libraries  and  herbaria.  Any  one  discovering  a 
plant  he  believed  to  be  unknown  to  science  published  a 
description  of  it  in  some  scientific  journal.  If  some  one 
else  had  described  it  at  an  earlier  date,  the  fact  became 
known  in  the  course  of  time.  The  name  earliest  published 
is  retained,  and  the  later  one  is  dropped  to  the  rank  of  a 
synonym.  If  the  name  has  been  used  before  to  describe 
some  other  species  in  the  same  genus,  a  new  name  must  be 
supplied.  In  the  "Cyclopedia  of  Horticulture"  the  sugar 
maple  is  written :  ^^  Acer  saccharum,  ISlsmsh..  (Acer  sacch- 
arinumy  Wang.  Acer  barbatum,  Michx.)"  This  means 
that  the  earliest  name  given  this  tree  by  a  botanist  was  that 
of  Marshall.  Wangheimer  and  Michaux  are  therefore 
thrown  out;  the  names  given  by  them  are  among  the 
synonyms. 

Our  cork  elm  was  until  recently  called  "  Ulmus  racemosa, 
Thomas."  The  discovery  that  the  name  racemosa  was 
given  long  ago  to  the  cork  elm  of  Europe  discredited  it  for 


INTRODUCTION  xxi 

the  American  tree.  Mr.  Sargent  substituted  the  name  of 
the  author,  and  it  now  stands  ''Ulmus  Thomasi,  Sarg.** 
Occasionally  a  generic  name  is  changed.  The  old  generic 
name  becomes  the  specific  name.  Box  elder  was  formerly 
known  as  ''Negundo  aceroides,  Moench."  It  is  changed 
back  to  ''Acer  Negimdo,  Linn."  On  the  other  hand,  the 
tan-bark  oak,  which  is  intermediate  in  character  between 
oaks  and  chestnuts,  has  been  taken  by  Professor  Sargent 
in  his  Manual,  1905,  out  of  the  genus  Quercus  and  set  in  a 
genus  by  itself.  From  ''Quercus  densifiora,  Hook,  and 
Arn*"  it  is  called  "Pasania  densiflora,  Sarg.,"  the  specific 
name  being  carried  over  to  the  new  genus. 

About  one  hundred  thousand  species  of  plants  have  been 
named  by  botanists.  They  beheve  that  one  half  of  the 
world's  flora  is  covered.  Trees  are  better  known  than  less 
conspicuous  plants.  Fungi  and  bacteria  are  just  coming 
into  notice.  Yet  even  among  trees  new  species  are  con- 
stantly being  described.  Professor  Sargent  described  567 
native  species  in  his  "Silva  of  North  America,"  published 
1892-1900.  His  Manual,  1905,  contains  630.  Both  books 
exclude  Mexico.  The  silva  of  the  tropics  contains  many 
unknown  trees,  for  there  are  still  impenetrable  tracts  of 
forest. 

The  origin  of  local  names  of  trees  is  interesting.  History 
and  romance,  music  and  hard  common  sense  are  in  these 
names — likewise  much  pure  foolishness.  The  nearness  to 
Mexico  brought  in  the  musical  piflon  and  madrofia  in  the 
southwest.  Pecanier  and  bois  d'arc  came  with  many  other 
French  names  with  the  Acadians  to  Louisiana.  The  In- 
dians had  many  trees  named,  and  we  wisely  kept  hickory, 
wahoo,  catalpa,  persimmon,  and  a  few  others  of  them. 

Woodsmen  have  generally  chosen   descriptive  names 


xxii  INTRODUCTION 

which  are  based  on  fact  and  are  helpful  to  learners.  Bot- 
anists have  done  this,  too.  Bark  gives  the  names  to  shag- 
bark  hickor}^  striped  maple,  and  naked  wood.  The  color 
names  white  birch,  black  locust,  blue  beech.  Wood  names 
red  oak,  yellow-wood,  and  white-heart  hickory.  The  tex- 
ture names  rock  elm,  punk  oak,  and  soft  pine.  The  uses 
name  post  oak,  canoe  birch,  and  lodge-pole  pine. 

The  tree  habit  is  described  by  dwarf  juniper  and  weeping 
spruce.  The  habitat  by  swamp  maple,  desert  willow,  and 
seaside  alder.  The  range  by  California  white  oak  and 
Georgia  pine.  Sap  is  characterized  in  sugar  maple,  sweet 
gum,  balsam  fir,  and  sweet  birch.  Twigs  are  indicated  in 
clammy  locust,  cotton  gum,  winged  elm.  Leaf  hnings  are 
referred  to  in  silver  maple,  white  poplar,  and  white  bass- 
wood.  Color  of  fohage,  in  gray  pine,  blue  oak,  and  golden 
^,  Shape  of  leaves,  in  heart-leaved  cucumber  tree  and 
ear-leaved  umbrella.  Resemblance  of  leaves  to  other 
species,  in  willow  oak  and  parsley  haw.  The  flowers  of 
trees  give  names  to  tulip  tree,  silver-bell  tree,  and  fringe 
tree.  The  fruit  is  described  in  big-cone  pine,  butternut, 
mossy-cup  oak,  and  mock  orange. 

Many  trees  retain  their  classical  names,  which  have  be- 
come the  generic  botanical  ones,  as  acacia,  ailanthus,  and 
viburnum.  Others  modify  these  slightly,  as  pine  from 
Finns,  and  poplar  from  Populus.  The  number  of  local 
names  a  species  has  depends  upon  the  notice  it  attracts  and 
the  range  it  has.  The  loblolly  pine,  important  as  a  lumber 
tree,  extends  along  the  coast  from  New  Jersey  to  Texas. 
It  has  twenty-two  nicknames. 

The  scientific  name  is  for  use  when  accurate  designation 
of  a  species  is  required;  the  common  name  for  ordinary 
speech.     "What  a  beautiful  Quercus  alba!^'  sounds  very 


INTRODUCTION  xxiii 

silly  and  pedantic,  even  if  it  falls  on  scientific  ears.  Only 
persons  of  very  shallow  scientific  learning  use  it  on  such  in- 
formal occasions. 

Let  us  keep  the  most  beautiful  and  fitting  among  com- 
mon names,  and  work  for  their  general  adoption.  There 
are  no  hard  names  once  they  become  familiar  ones.  No- 
body hesitates  or  stumbles  over  chrysanthemum  and 
rhododendron,  though  these  sonorous  Greek  derivatives 
have  four  syllables.  Nobody  asks  what  these  names  are 
"in  plain  English." 


TREES  WORTH  KNOWING 


TREES 

PART  I 
THE  LIFE  OF  THE  TREES 

The  swift  unfolding  of  the  leaves  in  spring  is  always  a 
miracle.  One  day  the  budded  twigs  are  still  wrapped  in 
the  deep  sleep  of  winter.  A  trace  of  green  appears  about 
the  edges  of  the  bud  scales — they  loosen  and  fall,  and  the 
tender  green  shoot  looks  timidly  out  and  begins  to  unfold 
its  crumpled  leaves.  Soon  the  delicate  blade  broadens  and 
takes  on  the  texture  and  familiar  appearance  of  the  grown- 
up leaf.  Behold!  while  we  watched  the  single  shoot  the 
bare  tree  has  clothed  itself  in  the  green  canopy  of  summer. 

How  can  this  miracle  take  place. '^  How  does  the  tree 
come  into  full  leaf,  sometimes  within  a  fraction  of  a  week.'* 
It  could  never  happen  except  for  the  store  of  concentrated 
food  that  the  sap  dissolves  in  spring  and  carries  to  the 
buds,  and  for  the  remarkable  activity  of  the  cambium  cells 
within  the  buds. 

What  is  a  bud.'^  It  is  a  shoot  in  miniature — its  leaves  or 
flowers,  or  both,  formed  with  wondrous  completeness  in 
the  previous  summer.  About  its  base  are  crowded  leaves 
so  hardened  and  overlapped  as  to  cover  and  protect  the 
tender  shoot.  All  the  tree  can  ever  express  of  beauty  or 
of  energy  comes  out  of  these  precious  little  *' growing 
points,"  wrapped  up  all  winter,  but  impatient,  as  spring 

3 


4  TREES 

approaches,  to  accept  the  invitation  of  the  south  wind  and 
sun. 

The  protective  scale  leaves  fall  when  they  are  no  longer 
needed.  This  vernal  leaf  fall  makes  little  show  on  the 
forest  floor,  but  it  greatly  exceeds  in  number  of  leaves  the 
autumnal  defoliation. 

Sometimes  these  bud  scales  lengthen  before  the  shoot 
spares  them.  The  silky,  brown  scales  of  the  beech  buds 
sometimes  add  twice  their  length,  thus  protecting  the 
lengthening  shoot  which  seems  more  delicate  than  most 
kinds,  less  ready  to  encounter  unguarded  the  wind  and  the 
sun.  The  hickories,  shagbark,  and  mockemut,  show  scales 
more  than  three  inches  long. 

Many  leaves  are  rosy,  or  lilac  tinted,  when  they  open — 
the  waxy  granules  of  their  precious  "leaf  green  "screened 
by  these  colored  pigments  from  the  full  glare  of  the  sun. 
Some  leaves  have  wool  or  silk  growing  like  the  pile  of  velvet 
on  their  surfaces.  These  hairs  are  protective  also.  They 
shrivel  or  blow  away  when  the  leaf  comes  to  its  full  de- 
velopment. Occasionally  a  species  retains  the  down  on 
the  lower  surface  of  its  leaves,  or,  oftener,  merely  in  the 
angles  of  its  veins. 

The  folding  and  plaiting  of  the  leaves  bring  the  ribs  and 
veins  into  prominence.  The  delicate  green  web  sinks 
into  folds  between  and  is  therefore  protected  from  the 
weather.  Young  leaves  hang  limp,  never  presenting  their 
perpendicular  surfaces  to  the  sun. 

Another  protection  to  the  infant  leaf  is  the  pair  of  stipules 
at  its  base.  Such  stipules  enclose  the  leaves  of  tulip  and 
magnolia  trees.  The  beech  leaf  has  two  long  strap-like 
stipules.  Linden  stipules  are  green  and  red — two  con- 
cave, oblong  leaves,  like  the  two  valves  of  a  pea  pod.     Elm 


THE  LIFE  OF  THE  TREES  5 

stipules  are  conspicuous.  The  black  willow  has  large, 
leaf-like,  heart-shaped  stipules,  green  as  the  leaf  and  saw- 
toothed. 

Most  stipules  shield  the  tender  leaf  during  the  hours  of 
its  helplessness,  and  fall  away  as  the  leaf  matures.  Others 
persist,  as  is  often  seen  in  the  black  willows. 

With  this  second  vernal  leaf  fall  (for  stipules  are  leaves) 
the  leaves  assume  independence,  and  take  up  their  serious 
work.  They  are  ready  to  make  the  living  for  the  whole 
tree.  Nothing  contributed  by  soil  or  atmosphere — no 
matter  how  rich  it  is — can  become  available  for  the  tree's 
use  until  the  leaves  receive  and  prepare  it. 

Every  leaf  that  spreads  its  green  blade  to  the  sun  is  a 
laboratory,  devoted  to  the  manufacture  of  starch.  It  is, 
in  fact,  an  outward  extension  of  the  living  cambium, 
thrust  out  beyond  the  thick,  hampering  bark,  and  special- 
ized to  do  its  specific  work  rapidly  and  effectively. 

The  structure  of  the  leaves  must  be  studied  with  a 
microscope.  This  laboratory  has  a  delicate,  transparent, 
enclosing  wall,  with  doors,  called  stomates,  scattered  over 
the  lower  surface.  The  "leaf  pulp"  is  inside,  so  is  the 
framework  of  ribs  and  veins,  that  not  only  supports  the 
soft  tissues  but  furnishes  the  vascular  system  by  which  an 
incoming  and  outgoing  current  of  sap  is  kept  in  constant 
circulation.  In  the  upper  half  of  the  leaf,  facing  the  sun, 
the  pulp  is  in  "palisade  cells,"  regular,  oblong,  crowded 
together,  and  perpendicular  to  the  flat  surface.  There  are 
sometimes  more  than  one  layer  of  these  cells. 

In  the  lower  half  of  the  leaf's  thickness,  between  the  pal- 
isade cells  and  the  under  surface,  the  tissue  is  spongy. 
There  is  no  crowding  of  cells  here.  They  are  irregularly 
spherical,  and  cohere  loosely,  being  separated  by  ample 


> 


6  TREES 

air  spaces,  which  communicate  with  the  outside  world  by 
the  doorways  mentioned  above.  An  ordinary  apple  leaf 
has  about  one  hundred  thousand  of  these  stomates  to  each 
square  inch  of  its  under  surface.  So  the  ventilation  of  the 
leaf  is  provided  for. 

The  food  of  trees  comes  from  two  sources — ^the  air  and 
the  soil.  Dry  a  stick  of  wood,  and  the  water  leaves  it. 
Bum  it  now,  and  ashes  remain.  The  water  aad  the  ashes 
came  from  the  soil.  That  which  came  from  the  air  passed 
off  in  gaseous  form  with  the  burning.  Some  elements  from 
the  soil  also  were  converted  by  the  heat  into  gases,  and 
escaped  by  the  chimneys. 

Take  that  same  stick  of  wood,  and,  instead  of  burning  it 
in  an  open  fireplace  or  stove,  smother  it  in  a  pit  and  burn  it 
slowly,  and  it  comes  out  a  stick  of  charcoal,  having  its 
shape  and  size  and  grain  preserved.  It  is  carbon,  its  only 
impurity  being  a  trace  of  ashes.  What  would  have  es~ 
caped  up  a  chimney  as  carbonic-acid  gas  is  confined  here  as 
a  solid,  and  fire  can  yet  liberate  it. 

The  vast  amount  of  carbon  which  the  body  of  a  tree 
contains  came  into  its  leaves  as  a  gas,  carbon  dioxide. 
The  soil  furnished  various  minerals,  which  were  brought  up 
in  the  "crude  sap."  Most  of  these  remain  as  ashes  when 
the  wood  is  burned.  Water  comes  from  the  soil.  So  the 
fist  of  raw  materials  of  tree  food  is  complete,  and  the  next 
question  is:  How  are  they  prepared  for  the  tree's  use.^^ 

The  ascent  of  the  sap  from  roots  to  leaves  brings  water 
with  mineral  salts  dissolved  in  it.  Thus  potassium, 
calcium,  magnesium,  iron,  sulphur,  nitrogen,  and  phos- 
phorus ai-e  brought  to  the  leaf  laboratories — some  are  use- 
ful, some  useless.  The  stream  of  water  contributes  of 
itself  to  the  laboratory  whatever  the  leaf  cells  demand  to 


See  page  S7 


S1IAG15AHK    IIK'KORY 


MOCKEBNUT   FRUIT   AND   LEAVES 


See  page  40 


THE  LIFE  OF  THE  TREES  7 

keep  their  own  substance  sufficiently  moist,  and  those 
molecules  that  are  necessary  to  furnish  hydrogen  and 
oxygen  for  the  making  of  starch.  Water  is  needed  also  to 
keep  full  the  channels  of  the  returning  streams,  but  the 
great  bulk  of  water  that  the  roots  send  up  escapes  by 
evaporation  through  the  curtained  doorways  of  the  leaves. 

Starch  contains  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen,  the  last 
two  in  the  exact  proportion  that  they  bear  to  each  other  in 
water,  H-0.  The  carbon  comes  in  as  carbon  dioxide, 
CO-.  There  is  no  lack  of  this  familiar  gas  in  the  air.  It 
is  exhaled  constantly  from  the  lungs  of  every  animal,  from 
chimneys,  and  from  all  decaying  substances.  It  is  diffused 
through  the  air,  and,  entering  the  leaves  by  the  stomates, 
comes  in  contact  with  other  food  elements  in  the  palisade 
cells. 

The  power  that  runs  this  starch  factory  is  the  sun.  The 
chlorophyll,  or  leaf  green,  which  colors  the  clear  protoplasm 
of  the  cells,  is  able  to  absorb  in  daylight  (and  especially  on 
warm,  sunny  days)  some  of  the  energy  of  sunlight,  and  to 
enable  the  protoplasm  to  use  the  energy  thus  captured  to 
the  chemical  breaking  down  of  water  and  carbon  dioxide, 
and  the  reuniting  of  their  free  atoms  into  new  and  more 
complex  molecules.  These  are  molecules  of  starch,  C^H  ^®0^ . 

The  new  product  in  soluble  form  makes  its  way  into  the 
current  of  nutritious  sap  that  sets  back  into  the  tree.  This 
is  the  one  product  of  the  factory — the  source  of  all  the 
tree's  growth — for  it  is  the  elaborated  sap,  the  food  which 
nourishes  every  living  cell  from  leaf  to  root  tip.  It  builds 
new  wood  layers,  extends  both  twigs  and  roots,  and  per- 
fects the  buds  for  the  coming  year. 

Sunset  puts  a  stop  to  starch  making.  The  power  is 
turned  off  till  another  dav.     The  distribution  of  starch 


8  TREES 

goes  on.  The  surplus  is  unloaded,  and  the  way  is  cleared 
for  work  next  day.  On  a  sunless  day  less  starch  is  made 
than  on  a  bright  one. 

Excess  of  water  and  of  free  oxygen  is  noticeable  in  this 
making  of  starch.  Both  escape  in  invisible  gaseous  form 
through  the  stomates.  No  carbon  escapes,  for  it  is  all  used 
up,  and  a  continual  supply  of  CO^  sets  in  from  outside. 
We  find  it  at  last  in  the  form  of  solid  wood  fibres.  So  it  is 
the  leaf's  high  calling  to  take  the  crude  elements  brought 
to  it,  and  convert  them  into  food  ready  for  assimilation. 

There  are  little  elastic  curtains  on  the  doors  of  leaves, 
and  in  dry  weather  they  are  closely  drawn.  This  is  to 
prevent  the  free  escape  of  water,  which  might  debilitate 
the  starch-making  cells.  In  a  moist  atmosphere  the  doors 
stand  wide  open.  Evaporation  does  not  draw  water  so 
hard  in  such  weather,  and  there  is  no  danger  of  excessive 
loss.  "The  average  oak  tree  in  its  five  active  months 
evaporates  about  28,000  gallons  of  water" — an  average  of 
about  187  gallons  a  day. 

In  the  making  of  starch  there  is  oxygen  left  over — just 
the  amount  there  is  left  of  the  carbon  dioxide  when  the 
carbon  is  seized  for  starch  making.  This  accumulating 
gas  passes  into  the  air  as  free  oxygen,  "purifying"  it  for 
the  use  of  all  animal  life,  even  as  the  absorption  of  carbon 
dioxide  does. 

When  daylight  is  gone,  the  exchange  of  these  two  gases 
ceases.  There  is  no  excess  of  oxygen  nor  demand  for 
carbon  dioxide  until  business  begins  in  the  morning.  But 
now  a  process  is  detected  that  the  day's  activities  had 
obscured. 

The  living  tree  breathes — inhales  oxygen  and  exhales 
carbonic-acid  gas.     Because  the  leaves  exercise  the  func- 


THE  LIFE  OF  THE  TREES  9 

tion  of  respiration,  they  may  properly  be  called  the  lungs 
of  trees,  for  the  respiration  of  animals  differs  in  no  es- 
sential from  that  of  plants. 

The  bulk  of  the  work  of  the  leaves  is  accomplished  before 
midsummer.  They  are  damaged  by  whipping  in  the 
wind,  by  the  ravages  of  fungi  and  insects  of  many  kinds. 
Soot  and  dust  clog  the  stomates.  Mineral  deposits 
cumber  the  working  cells.  Finally  they  become  sere  and 
russet  or  "die  like  the  dolphin,"  passing  in  all  the  splendor 
of  sunset  skies  to  oblivion  on  the  leaf  mould  under  the 
trees. 

TJie  Groivth  of  a  Tree 

The  great  chestnut  tree  on  the  hillside  has  cast  its  bur- 
den of  ripe  nuts,  flung  down  the  empty  burs,  and  given  its 
yellow  leaves  to  the  autumn  winds.  Now  the  owner  has 
cut  dowTi  its  twin,  which  was  too  near  a  neighbor  for  the 
wxll-being  of  either,  and  is  converting  it  into  lumber.  The 
lopped  limbs  have  gone  to  the  woodpile,  and  the  boards 
will  be  dressed  and  polished  and  used  for  the  woodw^ork  of 
the  new  house.  Here  is  our  opportunity  to  see  what  the 
bark  of  the  living  tree  conceals — to  study  the  anatomy  of 
the  tree — to  learn  something  of  grain  and  wood  rings  and 
knots. 

The  most  amazing  fact  is  that  tliis  "too,  too  solid  flesh" 
of  the  tree  body  was  all  made  of  dirty  water  and  carbonic- 
acid  gas.  Well  may  we  feel  a  kind  of  awe  and  reverence 
for  the  leaves  and  the  cambium — the  builders  of  this 
wooden  structure  we  call  a  tree.  The  bark,  or  outer  gar- 
ment, covers  the  tree  completely,  from  tip  of  farthest  root 
to  tip  of  highest  twig.  Under  the  bark  is  the  slimy, 
colorless  living  layer,  the  cambium,  which  we  may  define  as. 


10  TREES 

the  separation  between  wood  and  bark.  It  seems  to  have 
no  perceptible  diameter,  though  it  impregnates  with  its 
substance  the  wood  and  bark  next  to  it.  This  cambium  is 
a  continuous  undergarment,  Hning  the  bark  everywhere, 
covering  the  wood  of  every  root  and  every  twig  as  well  as 
of  the  trunk  and  all  its  larger  divisions. 

Under  the  cambium  is  the  wood,  which  forms  the  real 
body  of  the  tree.  It  is  a  hard  and  fibrous  substance,  which 
in  cross  section  of  root  or  trunk  or  limb  or  twig  is  seen  to  be 
in  fine,  but  distinctly  marked,  concentric  rings  about  a 
central  pith.     This  pith  is  most  conspicuous  in  the  twigs. 

Now,  what  does  the  chestnut  tree  accomplish  in  a  single 
growing  season?  We  have  seen  its  buds  open  in  early 
spring  and  watched  the  leafy  shoots  unfold  Many  of 
these  bore  clusters  of  blossoms  in  midsumm.er,  long  yellow 
spikes,  shaking  out  a  mist  of  pollen,  and  falling  away  at 
length,  while  the  inconspicuous  green  flowers  developed 
into  spiny,  velvet-lined  burs  that  gave  up  in  their  own 
good  time  the  nuts  which  are  the  seeds  of  the  tree. 

The  new  shoots,  having  formed  buds  in  the  angles  of 
their  leaves,  rest  from  their  labors.  The  tree  had  added  to 
the  height  and  breadth  of  its  crown  the  exact  measure  of 
its  new  shoots.  There  has  been  no  lengthening  of  limb  or 
trunk.  But  underground  the  roots  have  made  a  season's 
grov/th  by  extending  their  tips.  These  fresh  rootlets 
clothed  with  the  velvety  root  hairs  are  new,  just  as  the 
shoots  are  new  that  bear  the  leaves  on  the  ends  of  the 
branches. 

There  is  a  general  popular  impression  that  trees  grow  in 
height  by  the  gradual  lengthening  of  trunk  and  limbs.  If 
this  were  true,  nails  driven  into  the  trunk  in  a  vertical  line 
would  gradually  become  farther  apart.     They  do  not,  as 


THE  LIFE  OF  THE  TREES  11 

observation  proves.  Fence  wires  stapled  to  growing  trees 
are  not  spread  apart  nor  carried  upward,  though  the  trees 
may  serve  as  posts  for  years,  and  the  growth  in  diameter 
may  swallow  up  staple  and  wire  in  a  short  time.  Normal 
wood  fibres  are  inert  and  do  not  lengthen.  Only  the 
season's  rootlets  and  leafy  shoots  are  soft  and  alive  and 
capable  of  lengthening  by  cell  division. 

The  work  of  the  leaves  has  already  been  described.  The 
return  current,  bearing  starch  in  soluble  form,  flows  freely 
among  the  cells  of  the  cambium.  Oxygen  is  there  also. 
The  cambium  cell  in  the  growing  season  fulfils  its  life  mis- 
sion by  absorbing  food  and  dividing.  This  is  growth — 
and  the  power  to  grow  comes  only  to  the  cell  attacked  by 
oxygen.  The  rebuilding  of  its  tissues  multiplies  the  sub- 
stance of  the  qambium  at  a  rapid  rate.  A  cell  divides, 
producing  two  "daughter  cells."  Each  is  soon  as  large  as 
its  parent,  and  ready  to  divide  in  the  same  way.  A  cam- 
bium cell  is  a  microscopic  object,  but  in  a  tree  there  are 
milKons  upon  millions  of  them.  Consider  how  large  an 
area  of  cambium  a  large  tree  has.  It  is  exactly  equivalent 
to  the  total  area  of  its  bark.  Two  cells  by  dividing  make 
four.  The  next  division  produces  eight,  then  sixteen, 
thirty-two,  sixty-four,  in  geometric  proportion.  The 
cell's  power  and  disposition  to  divide  seems  limited  only  by 
the  food  and  oxygen  supply.  The  cambium  layer  itself 
remains  a  very  narrow  zone  of  the  newest,  most  active 
cells.  The  margins  of  the  cambium  are  crowded  with  cells 
whose  walls  are  thickened  and  whose  protoplasm  is  no 
longer  active.  The  accumulation  of  these  worn-out  cells 
forms  the  total  of  the  season's  growth,  the  annual  ring  of 
wood  on  one  side  of  the  cambium  and  the  annual  layer  of 
\ark  on  the  other. 


^ 


12  TREES 

What  was  once  a  delicate  cell  now  becomes  a  hollow 
wood  fibre,  thin  walled,  but  becoming  thickened  as  it  gets 
older.  For  a  few  years  the  superannuated  cell  is  a  part  of 
the  sap  wood  and  is  used  as  a  tube  in  the  system  through 
which  the  crude  sap  mounts  to  the  leaves.  Later  it  may 
be  stored  full  of  starch,  and  the  sap  will  flow  up  through 
newer  tubes.  At  last  the  walls  of  the  old  cell  harden  and 
darken  with  mineral  deposits.  Many  annual  rings  lie  be- 
tween it  and  the  cambium.  It  has  become  a  part  of  the 
heart  wood  of  the  tree. 

The  cells  of  its  own  generation  that  were  crowded  in  the 
other  direction  made  part  of  an  annual  layer  of  bark.  As 
new  layers  formed  beneath  them,  and  the  bark  stretched 
and  cracked,  they  lost  their  moisture  by  contact  with  the 
outer  air.  Finally  they  became  thin,  loose  fibres,  and 
scaled  off. 

The  years  of  a  tree's  life  are  recorded  with  fair  accuracy 
in  the  rings  of  its  wood.  The  bark  tells  the  same  story, 
but  the  record  is  lost  by  its  habit  of  sloughing  off  the  outer 
layers.  Occasionally  a  tree  makes  two  layers  of  wood  in  a 
single  season,  but  this  is  exceptional.  Sometimes,  as  in  a 
year  of  drought,  the  wood  ring  is  so  small  as  to  be  hardly 
distinguishable. 

Each  annual  ring  in  the  chestnut  stump  is  distinct  from 
its  neighboring  ring.  The  wood  gradually  merges  from  a 
dark  band  full  of  large  pores  to  one  paler  in  color  and  of 
denser  texture.  It  is  very  distinct  in  oak  and  ash.  The 
coarser  belt  was  formed  first.  The  spring  wood,  being  so 
open,  discolors  by  the  accumulation  of  dust  when  exposed 
to  the  air.  The  closer  summer  wood  is  paler  in  color  and 
harder,  the  pores  almost  invisible  to  the  unaided  eye.  The 
best  timber  has  the  highest  percentage  of  summer  wood. 


THE  LIFE  OF  THE  TREES  IS 

If  a  tree  had  no  limbs,  and  merely  laid  on  each  year  a 
layer  of  wood  made  of  parallel  fibres  fitted  on  each  other 
like  pencils  in  a  box,  wood  splitting  would  be  child's  play 
and  carpenters  would  have  less  care  to  look  after  their 
tools.  But  woods  differ  in  structure,  and  all  fall  short  of 
the  woodworker's  ideal.  The  fibres  of  oak  vary  in  shape 
and  size.  They  taper  and  overlap  their  ends,  making  the 
wood  less  easily  split  than  soft  pine,  for  instance,  whose 
fibres  are  regular  cylinders,  which  lie  parallel,  and  meet  end 
to  end  without  "breaking  joints." 

Fibres  of  oak  are  also  bound  together  by  flattened 
bundles  of  horizontal  fibres  that  extend  from  pith  to  cam- 
bium, insinuated  between  the  vertical  fibres.  These  are 
seen  on  a  cross-section  of  a  log  as  narrow,  radiating  lines 
starting  from  the  pith  and  cutting  straight  through  heart 
wood  and  sap  wood  to  the  bark.  A  tangential  section  of  a 
log  (the  surface  exposed  by  the  removal  of  a  slab  on  any 
side)  shows  these  "pith  rays,"  or  "medullary  rays"  as 
long,  tapering  streaks.  A  longitudinal  section  made  from 
bark  to  centre,  as  when  a  log  is  "quarter-sawed,"  shows 
a  full  side  view  of  the  "medullary  rays."  They  are  often 
an  inch  w-ide  or  more  in  oak;  these  wavy,  irregular,  gleam- 
ing fibre  bands  are  know^n  in  the  furniture  trade  as  the 
"mirrors"  of  oak.  They  take  a  beautiful  polish,  and  are 
highly  esteemed  in  cabinet  work.  The  best  white  oak  has 
20  per  cent,  to  25  per  cent,  of  its  substance  made  up  of  these 
pith  rays.  The  horny  texture  of  its  wood,  together  with 
its  strength  and  durability,  give  white  oak  an  enviable 
place  among  timber  trees,  while  the  beauty  of  its  pith  rays 
ranks  it  high  among  ornamental  woods. 

The  grain  of  wood  is  its  texture.  Wide  annual  rings 
with  large  pores  mark  coarse-grained  woods.     They  need 


14  TREES 

"filling"  with  varnish  or  other  substance  before  they  can 
be  satisfactorily  poKshed.  Fine-grained  woods,  if  hard, 
polish  best.  Trees  of  slow  growth  usually  have  fine- 
grained wood,  though  the  rule  is  not  universal. 

Ordinarily  wood  fibres  are  parallel  with  their  pith.  They 
are  straight  grained.  Exceptions  to  this  rule  are  con- 
stantly encountered.  The  cliief  cause  of  variation  is  the 
fact  that  tree  trunks  branch.  Limbs  have  their  origin  in 
the  pith  of  the  stems  that  bear  them.  Any  stem  is  nor- 
mally one  year  older  than  the  branch  it  bears.  So  the 
base  of  any  branch  is  a  cone  quite  buried  in  the  parent 
stem.  A  cross-section  of  this  cone  in  a  board  sawed  from 
the  trunk  is  a  knot.  Its  size  and  number  of  rings  indicate 
its  age.  If  the  knot  is  diseased  and  loose,  it  will  fall  out, 
leaving  a  knot  hole.  The  fibres  of  the  wood  of  a  branch  are 
extensions  of  those  just  below  it  on  the  main  stem.  They 
spread  out  so  as  to  meet  around  the  twig  and  continue  in 
parallel  lines  to  its  extremity.  The  fibres  contiguous  to 
those  which  were  diverted  from  the  main  stem  to  clothe 
the  branch  must  spread  so  as  to  meet  above  the  branch,  else 
the  parent  stem  would  be  bare  in  this  quarter.  The  union 
of  stem  and  branch  is  weak  above,  as  is  shown  by  the  clean 
break  made  above  a  twig  when  it  is  torn  off,  and  the  stub- 
born tearing  of  the  fibres  below  down  into  the  older  stem. 
A  half  hour  spent  at  the  woodpile  or  among  the  trees  with  a 
jack-knife  will  demonstrate  the  laws  by  which  the  straight 
grain  of  wood  is  diverted  by  the  insertion  of  limbs.  The 
careful  picking  up  and  tearing  back  of  the  fibres  of  bark 
and  wood  will  answer  all  our  questions.  Bass  wood  whose 
fibres  are  tough  is  excellent  for  illustration. 

When  a  twig  breaks  off,  the  bark  heals  the  wound  and 
the  grain  becomes  straight  over  the  place.     Trees  crowded 


THE  LIFE  OF  THE  TREES  15 

in  a  forest  early  divest  themselves  of  their  lower  branches. 
These  die  for  lack  of  sun  and  air,  and  the  trunk  covers 
their  stubs  with  layers  of  straight-grained  wood.  Such 
timbers  arc  the  masts  of  ships,  telegraph  poles,  and  the  best 
bridge  timbers.  Yet  buried  in  their  heart  wood  are  the 
roots  of  every  twig,  great  or  small,  that  started  out  to 
grow  when  the  tree  was  young.  These  knots  are  mostly 
small  and  sound,  so  they  do  not  detract  from  the  value  of 
the  lumber.  It  is  a  pleasure  to  work  upon  such  a  "stick 
of  timber." 

A  tree  that  grows  in  the  open  is  clothed  to  the  ground 
with  branches,  and  its  grain  is  found  to  be  warped  by 
hundreds  of  knots  when  it  reaches  the  sawmill.  Such  a 
tree  is  an  ornament  to  the  landscape,  but  it  makes  inferior, 
unreliable  lumber.  The  carpenter  and  the  wood  chopper 
despise  it,  for  it  ruins  tools  and  tempers. 

Besides  the  natural  diversion  of  straight  grain  by  knots, 
there  are  some  abnormal  forms  to  notice.  Wood  some- 
times shows  wavy  grain  under  its  bark.  Certain  trees 
twist  in  growing,  so  as  to  throw  the  grain  into  spiral  lines. 
Cypresses  and  gum  trees  often  exhibit  in  old  stumps  a 
veering  of  the  grain  to  the  left  for  a  few  years,  then  sud- 
denly to  the  right,  producing  a  "cross  grain"  that  defies 
attempts  to  split  it. 

"BirdVeye"  and  "curly  maple"  are  prizes  for  the 
furniture  maker.  Occasionally  a  tree  of  swamp  or  sugar 
maple  keeps  alive  the  crowded  twigs  of  its  sapling  for 
years,  and  forms  adventitious  buds  as  well.  These 
dwarfed  shoots  persist,  never  getting  ahead  further  than  a 
few  inches  outside  the  bark.  Each  is  the  centre  of  a  wood 
swelling  on  the  tree  bod}^  The  annual  layers  preserve  all 
the  inequalities.     Dots  surrounded  by   wavy  rings  are 


16  TREES 

scattered  over  the  boards  when  the  tree  is  sawed.  This  is 
bird's-eye  grain,  beautiful  in  pattern  and  in  sheen  and 
coloring  when  polished.  It  is  cut  thin  for  veneer  work. 
Extreme  irregularity  of  grain  adds  to  the  value  of  woods,  if 
they  are  capable  of  a  high  polish.  The  fine  texture  and 
coloring,  combined  with  the  beautiful  patterns  they  dis- 
play, give  woods  a  place  in  the  decorative  arts  that  can  be 
taken  by  no  other  material. 

The  Fall  of  the  Leaves 

It  is  November,  and  the  glory  of  the  woods  is  departed. 
Dull  browns  and  purples  show  where  oaks  still  hold  their 
leaves.  Beech  trees  in  sheltered  places  are  still  dressed  in 
pale  yellow.  The  elfin  flowers  of  the  witch  hazel  shine  like 
threads  of  gold  against  the  dull  leaves  that  still  cling.  The 
trees  lapse  into  their  winter  sleep. 

Last  week  a  strange  thing  happened.  The  wind  tore 
the  red  robes  from  our  swamp  maples  and  sassafras  and 
scattered  them  in  tatters  over  the  lawn.  But  the  horse- 
chestnut,  decked  out  in  yellow  and  green,  lost  scarcely  a 
leaf.  Three  days  later,  in  the  hush  of  early  morning,  when 
there  was  not  a  whiff  of  a  breeze  perceptible,  the  signal, 
"Let  go!"  came,  and  with  one  accord  the  leaves  of  the 
horse-chestnut  fell.  In  an  hour  the  tree  stood  knee  deep  in 
a  stack  of  yellow  leaves;  the  few  that  still  clung  had  con- 
siderable traces  of  green  in  them.  Gradually  these  are 
dropping,  and  the  shining  buds  remain  as  a  pledge  that  the 
summer  story  just  ended  will  be  told  again  next  year. 

Perhaps  such  a  sight  is  more  impressive  if  one  realizes  the 
vast  importance  of  the  work  the  leaves  of  a  summer  ac- 
complish for  the  tree  before  their  surrender. 

The  shedding  of  leaves  is  a  habit  broad-leaved  trees  have 


THE  LIFE  OF  THE  TREES  17 

learned  by  experience  in  contact  with  cold  winters.  The 
swamp  magnoha  is  a  beautiful  evergreen  tree  in  Florida. 
In  Virginia  the  leaves  shrivel,  but  they  cling  throughout 
the  season.  In  New  Jersey  and  north  as  far  as  Glouces- 
ter, where  the  tree  occurs  sparingly,  it  is  frankly  deciduous. 
Certain  oaks  in  the  Northern  states  have  a  stubborn  way  of 
clinging  to  their  dead  leaves  all  winter.  Farther  south 
some  of  these  species  grow  and  their  leaves  do  not  die  in 
fall,  but  are  practically  evergreen,  lasting  till  next  year's 
shoots  push  them  off.  The  same  gradual  change  in  habit 
is  seen  as  a  species  is  followed  up  a  mountain  side. 

The  horse-chestnut  will  serve  as  a  type  of  deciduous 
trees.  Its  leaves  are  large,  and  they  write  out,  as  if  in 
capital  letters,  the  story  of  the  fall  of  the  leaf.  It  is  a 
serial,  whose  chapters  run  from  July  until  November.  The 
tree  anticipates  the  coming  of  winter.  Its  buds  are  well 
formed  by  midsummer.  Even  then  signs  of  preparation 
for  the  leaf  fall  appear.  A  line  around  the  base  of  the  leaf 
stem  indicates  where  the  break  wdll  be.  Corky  cells  form 
on  each  side  of  this  joint,  replacing  tissues  which  in  the 
growing  season  can  be  parted  only  by  breaking  or  tearing 
them  forcibly.  A  clean-cut  zone  of  separation  weakens  the 
hold  of  the  leaf  upon  its  twig,  and  w^hen  the  moment  arrives 
the  lightest  breath  of  wind — even  the  weight  of  the  with- 
ered leaf  itself — causes  the  natural  separation.  And  the 
leaflets  simultaneously  fall  away  from  their  common  pet- 
iole. 

There  rre  more  important  things  happening  in  leaves  in 
late  summer  than  the  formation  of  corky  cells.  The  plump 
green  blades  are  full  of  valuable  substance  that  the  tree  can 
ill  afford  to  spare.  In  fact,  a  leaf  is  a  layer  of  the  precious 
cambium  spread  out  on  a  framework  of  veins  and  covered 


18  TREES 

with  a  delicate,  transparent  skin — a  sort  of  etherealized 
bark.  What  a  vast  quantity  of  leaf  pulp  is  in  the  foliage 
of  a  large  tree! 

As  summer  wanes,  and  the  upward  tide  of  sap  begins  to 
fail,  starch  making  in  the  leaf  laboratories  declines  pro- 
portionately. Usually  before  midsummer  the  fresh  green 
is  dimmed.  Dust  and  heat  and  insect  injuries  impair  the 
leaf's  capacity  for  work.  The  thrifty  tree  undertakes  to 
withdraw  the  leaf  pulp  before  winter  comes. 

But  how? 

It  is  not  a  simple  process  nor  is  it  fully  understood.  The 
tubes  that  carried  the  products  of  the  laboratory  away  are 
bound  up  with  the  fibres  of  the  leaf's  skeleton.  Through 
the  transparent  leaf  wall  the  migration  of  the  pulp  may  be 
watched.  It  leaves  the  margins  and  the  net  veins,  and 
settles  around  the  ribs  and  mid  vein,  exactly  as  we  should 
expect.  Dried  and  shrivelled  horse-chestnut  leaves  are 
still  able  to  show  various  stages  in  this  marvellous  retreat 
of  the  cambium.  If  moisture  fails,  the  leaf  bears  some  of 
its  green  substance  with  it  to  the  earth.  The  "breaking 
down  of  the  chlorophyll"  is  a  chemical  change  that  at- 
tends the  ripening  of  a  leaf.  (Leaf  ripening  is  as  natural  as 
the  ripening  of  fruit.)  The  waxy  granules  disintegrate, 
and  a  j^ellow  liquid  shows  its  colors  through  the  delicate 
leaf  walls.  Now  other  pigments,  some  curtained  from 
view  by  the  chlorophyll,  others  the  products  of  decom- 
position, show  themselves.  Iron  and  other  minerals  the 
sap  brought  from  the  soil  contribute  reds  and  yellows  and 
purples  to  the  color  scheme.  As  drainage  proceeds,  with 
the  chemical  changes  that  accompany  it,  the  pageant  of 
autumn  colors  passes  over  the  woodlands.  No  weed  or 
grass  stem  but  joins  in  the  carnival  of  the  year. 


THE  LIFE  OF  THE  TREES  19 

Crisp  and  dry  the  leaves  fall.  Among  the  crystals  and 
granules  that  remain  in  their  empty  chambers  there  is  little 
but  waste  that  the  tree  can  well  afford  to  be  rid  of — sub- 
stances that  have  clogged  the  leaf  and  impeded  its  work. 

We  have  been  mistaken  in  attributing  the  gay  colors  of 
autumnal  foKage  to  the  action  of  frost.  The  ripening  of 
the  leaves  occurs  in  the  season  of  warm  days  and  frosty 
nights,  but  it  does  not  follow  that  the  two  phenomena  be- 
long together  as  cause  and  effect.  Frost  no  doubt  hastens 
the  process.  But  the  chemical  changes  that  attend  the 
migration  of  the  carbohydrates  and  albuminous  materials 
from  the  leaf  back  into  twig  and  trunk  and  root  for  safe 
keeping  go  on  no  matter  what  the  weather. 

In  countries  having  a  moist  atmosphere  autumn 
colors  are  less  vivid.  England  and  our  own  Pacific  Coast 
have  nothing  to  compare  with  the  glory  of  the  foliage  in  the 
forests  of  Canada  and  the  Northeastern  states,  and  with 
those  on  the  wooded  slopes  of  the  Swiss  Alps,  and  along  the 
Rhine  and  the  Danube.  Long,  dry  autumns  produce  the 
finest  succession  of  colors.  The  most  brilliant  reds  and 
yellows  often  appear  long  before  the  first  frost.  Cold  rains 
of  long  duration  wash  the  colors  out  of  the  landscape, 
sometimes  spoiling  everything  before  October.  A  sharp 
freeze  before  the  leaves  expect  it  often  cuts  them  off  before 
they  are  ripe.  They  stiffen  and  fall,  and  are  wet  and  limp 
next  day,  as  if  they  had  been  scalded;  all  their  rich  cell  sub- 
stance lost  to  the  tree,  except  as  they  form  a  mulch  about 
its  roots.  But  no  tree  can  afford  so  expensive  a  fertilizer, 
and  happily  they  are  not  often  caught  unawares. 

Under  the  trees  the  dead  leaves  lie,  forming  with  the 
snow  a  protective  blanket  for  the  roots.  In  spring  the 
rains  will  leach  out  their  mineral  substance  and  add  it  to 


20  TREES 

the  soil.  The  abundant  lime  in  dead  leaves  is  active  in  the 
formation  of  humus,  which  is  decayed  vegetable  matter. 
We  call  it  "leaf  mould.'*  So  even  the  waste  portions  have 
their  effectual  work  to  do  for  the  tree's  good. 

The  leaves  of  certain  trees  in  regions  of  mild  winters  per- 
sist until  tiiey  are  pushed  off  by  the  swelling  buds  in  spring. 
Others  cling  a  year  longer,  in  sorry  contrast  with  the  new 
foliage.  Yve  may  believe  that  this  is  an  indolent  habit  in- 
duced by  climatic  conditions. 

Leaves  of  evergreens  cling  from  three  to  five  years. 
Families  and  individuals  differ;  altitude  and  latitude  pro- 
duce variations.  An  evergreen  in  winter  is  a  dull-looking 
object,  if  we  could  compare  it  with  its  summer  foliage.  Its 
chlorophyll  granules  withdraw  from  the  surface  of  the  leaf. 

They  seek  the  lower  ends  of  the  palisade  cells,  as  far  as 
they  can  get  from  the  leaf  surface,  assume  a  dull  reddish 
brown  or  brownish  yellow  color,  huddle  in  clumps,  their 
water  content  greatly  reduced,  and  thus  hibernate,  much  as 
the  cells  of  the  cambium  are  doing  under  the  bark.  In 
this  condition,  alternate  freezing  and  thawing  seem  to  do 
no  harm,  and  the  leaves  are  ready  in  spring  to  resume  the 
starch-making  function  if  they  are  still  young.  Naturally, 
the  oldest  leaves  are  least  capable  of  this  work,  and  least  is 
expected  of  them.  Gradually  they  die  and  drop  as  new 
ones  come  on.  As  among  broad-leaved  trees,  the  zone  of 
foliage  in  evergreens  is  an  outer  dome  of  newest  shoots ;  the 
framework  of  large  limbs  is  practically  destitute  of  leaves. 

How  Trees  Spend  the  Winter 

Nine  out  of  every  ten  intelligent  people  will  see  nothing 
of  interest  in  a  row  of  bare  trees.  They  casually  state  that 
buds  are  made  in  the  early  spring.     They  miss  seeing  the 


THE  LIFE  OF  THE  TREES  21 

strength  and  beauty  of  tree  architecture  which  the  foKage 
conceals  in  summertime.  The  close-knit,  alive-looking 
bark  of  a  living  tree  they  do  not  distinguish  from  the  dull, 
loose-hung  garment  worn  by  the  dead  tree  in  the  row.  All 
trees  look  alike  to  them  in  winter. 

Yet  there  is  so  much  to  see  if  only  one  will  take  time  to 
look.  Even  the  most  heedless  are  struck  at  times  wdth  the 
mystery  of  the  winter  trance  of  the  trees.  They  know  that 
each  spring  reenacts  the  vernal  miracle.  Thoughtful 
people  have  put  questions  to  these  sphinx-like  trees. 
Secrets  the  bark  and  bud  scales  hide  have  been  revealed  to 
those  who  have  patiently  and  importunately  inquired.  A 
keen  pair  of  eyes  used  upon  a  single  elm  in  the  dooryard  for 
a  whole  year  will  surprise  and  inform  the  observer.  It  will 
be  indeed  the  year  of  miracle. 

A  tree  has  no  centre  of  life,  no  vital  organs  correspond- 
ing to  those  of  animals.  It  is  made  up,  from  twig  to  root, 
of  annual,  concentric  layers  of  wood  around  a  central  pith. 

It  is  completely  covered  with  a  close  garment  of  bark, 
also  made  of  annual  layers.  Between  bark  and  wood  is  the 
delicate  undergarment  of  living  tissue  called  cambium. 
This  is  disappointing  when  one  comes  to  look  for  it,  for  all 
there  is  of  it  is  a  colorless,  slimy  substance  that  moistens 
the  youngest  layers  of  wood  and  bark,  and  forms  the  layer 
of  separation  between  them.  This  cambium  is  the  life  of 
the  tree.  A  hollow  trunk  seems  scarcely  a  disability. 
The  loss  of  limbs  a  tree  can  survive  and  start  afresh.  But 
girdle  its  trunk,  exposing  a  ring  of  the  cambium  to  the  air, 
and  the  tree  dies.  The  vital  connection  of  leaves  and 
roots  is  destroyed  by  the  girdling;  nothing  can  save  the 
tree's  Hfe.  Girdle  a  limb  or  a  twig  and  all  above  the  in- 
jury suffers  practical  amputation. 


22  TREES 

The  bark  protects  the  cambium,  and  the  cambium  is  th« 
tissue  which  by  cell  multiplication  in  the  growing  season 
produces  the  yearly  additions  of  wood  and  bark.  Buds 
are  growing  points  set  along  the  twigs.  They  produce 
leafy  shoots,  as  a  rule.  Some  are  specialized  to  produce 
flowers  and  subsequently  fruits.  Leaves  are  extensions 
of  cambium  spread  in  the  sun  and  air  in  the  season  when 
there  is  no  danger  from  frosts.  The  leaves  have  been 
called  the  stomachs  of  a  tree.  They  receive  crude  ma- 
terials from  the  soil  and  the  air  and  transmute  them  into 
starch  under  the  action  of  sunlight.  This  elaborated  sap 
supplies  the  hungry  cambium  cells  during  the  growing 
season,  and  the  excess  of  starch  made  in  the  leaf  labora- 
tories is  stored  away  in  empty  wood  cells  and  in  every 
available  space  from  bud  to  root  tip,  from  bark  to  pith. 

The  tree's  period  of  greatest  activity  is  the  early  sum- 
mer. It  is  the  time  of  growi:h  and  of  preparation  for  the 
coming  winter  and  for  the  spring  that  follows  it.  YV^inter 
is  the  time  of  rest — of  sleep,  or  hibernation.  A  bear  digs 
a  hollow  under  the  tree's  roots  and  sleeps  in  it  all  winter, 
waking  in  the  spring.  In  many  ways  the  tree  imitates  the 
bear.  Dangerous  as  are  analogies  between  plants  and 
animals,  it  is  literally  true  that  the  sleeping  bear  and  the 
dorr  Aant  tree  have  each  ceased  to  feed.  The  sole  activity 
of  each  seems  to  be  the  quiet  breathing. 

Do  trees  really  breathe.^  As  truly  and  as  incessantly  as 
you  do,  but  not  as  actively.  Other  processes  are  inter- 
mittent, but  breathing  must  go  on,  day  and  night,  winter 
and  summer,  as  long  as  life  lasts.  Breathing  is  low  in 
winter.  The  tree  is  not  growing.  There  is  only  the 
necessity  of  keeping  it  alive. 

Leaves  are  the  lungs  of  plants.     In  the  growing  season 


m 


A    GROVE    OF    BEECHES 


^fc  ya<jc 


THE  LIFE  OF  THE  TREES  23 

respiration  goes  on  at  a  vigorous  rate.  The  leaves  also 
throw  off  in  insensible  vapor  a  vast  quantity  of  water. 
This  is  called  transpiration  in  plants;  in  animals  the  term 
used  is  perspiration.  They  are  one  and  the  same  proc- 
ess. An  average  white  oak  tree  throws  off  150  gallons  of 
water  in  a  single  summer  day.  With  the  cutting  off  of  the 
water  supply  at  the  roots  in  late  fall,  transpiration  is  also 
cut  off. 

The  skin  is  the  efficient  "third  lung"  of  animals.  The 
closing  of  its  pores  causes  immediate  suffocation.  The 
bark  of  trees  carries  on  the  work  of  respiration  in  the 
absence  of  the  leaves.  Bark  is  porous,  even  where  it  is 
thickest. 

Look  at  the  twigs  of  half  a  dozen  kinds  of  trees,  and  find 
the  little  raised  dots  on  the  smooth  surface.  They  usually 
vary  in  color  from  the  bark.  These  are  lenticels,  or  breath- 
ing pores — not  holes,  likely  to  become  clogged  with  dust, 
but  porous,  corky  tissue  that  filters  the  air  as  it  comes  in. 
Li  most  trees  the  smooth  epidermis  of  twigs  is  shed  as  the 
bark  thickens  and  breaks  into  furrows.  This  obscures, 
though  it  does  not  obliterate,  the  air  passages.  Cherry 
and  birch  trees  retain  the  silky  epidermal  bark  on  limbs, 
and  in  patches,  at  least,  on  the  trunks  of  old  trees.  Here 
the  lenticels  are  seen  as  parallel,  horizontal  sHts,  open  some- 
times, but  usually  filled  with  the  characteristic  corky  sub- 
stance.    They  admit  air  to  the  cambium. 

There  is  a  popular  fallacy  that  trees  have  no  buds  until 
spring.  Some  trees  have  very  small  buds.  But  there  is  no 
tree  in  our  winter  woods  that  will  not  freely  show  its  buds 
to  any  one  who  wishes  to  see  them.  A  very  important 
part  of  the  summer  work  of  a  tree  is  the  forming  of  buds 
for  next  spring.     Even  when  the  leaves  are  just  imfolding 


£4  TREES 

on  the  tender  shoots  a  bud  will  be  found  in  each  angle  be- 
tween leaf  and  stem.  All  summer  long  its  bud  is  the 
especial  charge  of  each  particular  leaf.  If  accident  destroy 
the  leaf,  the  bud  dies  of  neglect.  When  midsummer  comes 
the  bud  is  full  grown,  or  nearly  so,  and  the  fall  of  the  leaf 
is  anticipated.  The  thrifty  tree  withdraws  as  much  as 
possible  of  the  rich  green  leaf  pulp,  and  stores  it  in  the  twig 
to  feed  the  opening  buds  in  spring. 

What  is  there  inside  the  wrappings  of  a  winter  bud? 
"A  leaf,"  is  the  usual  reply — and  it  is  not  a  true  one.  A 
bud  is  an  embryo  shoot — one  would  better  say,  a  shoot  in 
miniature.  It  has  very  little  length  or  diameter  when  the 
scales  are  stripped  off.  But  with  care  the  leaves  can  be 
spread  open,  and  their  shape  and  venation  seen.  The 
exact  number  the  shoot  was  to  bear  are  there  to  be  counted. 
Take  a  horse-chestnut  bud — one  of  the  biggest  ones — and 
you  will  unpack  a  cluster  of  flowers  distinct  in  number  and 
in  parts.  The  bud  of  the  tulip  tree  is  smaller,  but  it  holds 
a  single  blossom,  and  petals,  stamens,  and  pistil  are  easily 
recognizable.  Some  buds  contain  flowers  and  no  leaves. 
Some  have  shoots  with  both  upon  them.  If  we  know  the 
tree,  we  may  guess  accurately  about  its  buds. 

There  is  another  popular  notion,  very  pretty  and  senti- 
mental, but  untrue,  that  study  of  buds  is  bound  to  over- 
throw. It  is  the  belief  that  the  woolly  and  silky  linings  of 
bud  scales,  and  the  scales  themselves,  and  the  wax  that 
seals  up  many  buds  are  all  for  the  purpose  of  keeping  the 
bud  warm  through  the  cold  winter.  The  bark,  according 
to  the  same  notion,  is  to  keep  the  tree  warm.  This  idea 
is  equally  untenable.  There  is  but  feeble  analogy  be- 
tween a  warm-blooded  animal  wrapped  in  fur,  its  bodily 
heat  kept  up  by  fires  within  (the  rapid  oxidation  of  fats 


THE  LIFE  OF  THE  TREES  25 

and  carbohydrates  in  the  tissues),  and  the  winter  condition 
of  a  tree.  Hardy  plants  are  of  all  things  the  most  cold 
blooded.  They  are  defended  against  injuries  from  cold  in 
an  effective  but  entirely  different  way. 

Exposure  to  the  air  and  consequent  loss  of  its  moisture 
by  evaporation  is  the  death  of  the  cambium— that  which 
lies  under  the  thick  bark  and  in  the  tender  tissues  of  the 
bud,  sealed  up  in  its  layers  of  protecting  scales. 

The  cells  of  the  cambium  are  plump  little  masses  of  pro- 
toplasm, semi-fluid  in  consistency  in  the  growing  season. 
They  have  plenty  of  room  for  expansion  and  division. 
Freezing  would  rupture  their  walls,  and  this  would  mean 
disintegration  and  d^ath.  Nature  prepares  the  cells  to  be 
frozen  without  any  harm.  The  water  of  the  protoplasm 
is  withdrawn  by  osmosis  into  the  spaces  between  the  ceils. 
The  mucilaginous  substance  left  behind  is  loosely  enclosed 
by  the  crumpled  cell  wall.  Thus  we  see  that  a  tree  has 
about  as  much  water  in  it  in  winter  as  in  summer.  Green 
wood  cut  in  winter  burns  slowly  and  oozes  water  at  the 
ends  in  the  same  discouraging  way  as  it  does  in  summer- 
time. 

A  tree  takes  on  in  winter  the  temperature  of  the  sur- 
rounding air.  In  cold  weather  the  water  in  buds  and 
trunk  and  cambium  freezes  solid.  Ice  crystals  form  in  the 
intercellular  spaces  where  they  have  ample  room,  and  so  they 
do  no  damage  in  their  alternate  freezing  and  thawing. 
The  protoplasm  stiffens  in  excessive  cold,  but  when  the 
thermometer  rises,  life  stirs  again.  Motion,  breathing,  and 
feeding  are  essential  to  cell  life. 

It  is  hard  to  believe  that  buds  freeze  sohd.  But  cut  one 
open  in  a  freezing  cold  room,  and  before  you  breathe  upon 
it  take  a  good  look  with  a  magnifier,  and  you  should  make 


f  ORES  I  f< 


\\J  h^O 


26  TREES 

out  the  ice  crystals.  The  bark  is  actually  frozen  upon  a 
stick  of  green  stove  wood .  The  sap  that  oozes  out  of  the  pith 
and  heart  wood  was  frozen,  and  dripped  not  at  all  until  it 
was  brought  indoors. 

What  is  meant  by  the  freezing  of  fruit  buds  in  winter,  by 
which  the  peach  crop  is  so  often  lost  in  Northern  states.? 
When  spring  opens,  the  warmth  of  the  air  wakes  the  sleep- 
ing buds.  It  thaws  the  ice  in  the  intercellular  spaces,  and 
the  cells  are  quick  to  absorb  the  water  they  gave  up  when 
winter  approached.  The  thawing  of  the  ground  surrounds 
the  roots  with  moisture.  Sap  rises  and  flows  into  the  ut- 
most twig.  Warm  days  in  January  or  February  are  able 
to  deceive  the  tree  to  this  extent.  The  sudden  change 
back  to  winter  again  catches  them.  The  plump  cells  are 
ruptured  and  killed  by  the  "frost  bite." 

It  is  a  bad  plan  to  plant  a  tender  kind  of  tree  on  the  south 
side  of  a  house  or  a  wall.  The  direct  and  the  reflected 
warmth  of  the  sun  forces  its  buds  out  too  soon,  and  the  late 
frosts  cut  them  off.  There  is  rarely  a  good  yield  on  a  tree 
so  situated. 

There  is  no  miracle  like  "  the  burst  of  spring."  Who  has 
watched  a  tree  by  the  window  as  its  twigs  began  to  shine  in 
early  March,  and  the  buds  to  swell  and  show  edges  of 
green  as  their  scales  lengthened.?  Then  the  little  shoot 
struggled  out,  casting  off  the  hindering  scales  with  the 
scandalous  ingratitude  characteristic  of  infancy.  Feeble 
and  very  appealing  are  the  limp  baby  leaves  on  the  shoot, 
as  tender  and  pale  green  as  asparagus  tips.  But  all  that 
store  of  rich  nutritive  material  is  backing  the  enterprise. 
The  palms  are  lifted  into  the  air;  they  broaden  and  take  on 
the  texture  of  the  perfect,  mature  leaf.  Scarcely  a  day  is 
required  to  outgrow  the  hesitation  and  inexperience  of 


THE  LIFE  OF  THE  TREES  «7 

youth.  The  tree  stands  decked  in  its  canopy  of  leaves, 
every  one  of  which  is  ready  and  eager  to  assume  the  re- 
sponsibiHties  it  faces.  The  season  of  starch  making  has 
opened. 

Cut  some  twigs  of  convenient  trees  in  winter.  Let  them 
be  good  ones,  with  vigorous  buds,  and  have  them  at  least 
two  feet  long.  You  may  test  this  statement  I  have  made 
about  the  storing  of  food  in  the  twigs,  and  the  one  about 
the  unfolding  of  the  leafy  shoots.  Get  a  number  of  them 
from  the  orchard — samples  from  cherry,  plum,  and  apple 
trees;  from  maple  and  elm  and  any  other  familiar  tree. 
Put  them  in  jars  of  water  and  set  them  where  they  get  the 
sun  on  a  convenient  window  shelf.  Give  them  plenty  of 
water,  and  do  not  crowd  them.  It  is  not  necessary  to 
change  the  water,  but  cutting  the  ends  slanting  and  under 
water  every  few  days  insures  the  unimpeded  flow  of  the 
water  up  the  stems  and  the  more  rapid  development  of  the 
buds  you  are  watching.  When  spring  comes  there  are  too 
many  things  that  demand  attention.  The  forcing  of 
winter  buds  while  yet  it  is  winter  is  the  ideal  way  to  dis- 
cover the  trees'  most  precious  secrets. 


PART  n 

THE  NUT  TREES 

The  Walnuts — ^The  Hickories — The  Beech — The 
Chestnuts — The  Oaks — The  White  Oak  Group 
— The  Black  Oak  Group — The  Horse-chestnuts, 
OR  Buckeyes — The  Lindens,  or  Basswoods 

THE  WALNUTS 

Hickories  are  included  with  their  near  relatives,  the 
walnuts,  in  one  of  the  most  important  of  all  our  native  tree 
groups.  They  are  distinct,  yet  they  have  many  traits  in 
common — ^the  flowers  and  the  nut  fruits,  the  hard  resinous 
wood,  with  aromatic  sap  and  leaves  of  many  leaflets,  in- 
stead of  a  single  blade. 

The  walnuts  are  decidedly  "worth  knowing."  All  produce 
valuable  timber  and  edible  nuts,  and  all  are  good  shade 
trees.  Four  native  walnuts  are  well  known  in  this  country, 
for  in  October,  every  tree  in  every  bit  of  woods  is  likely  to 
be  visited  by  school  boys  with  bags,  eager  to  gather  the  nuts 
before  some  other  boy  finds  the  tree,  and  thus  establishes  a 
prior  claim  upon  it.  The  curiously  gnawed  shells  outside 
the  winter  storehouse  of  some  furry  woods-dweller  reveal 
the  most  successful  competitor  boys  have,  the  constant 
watcher  of  the  nut  trees,  a  harvester  who  works  at  nothing 
else  while  the  season  is  on. 


THE  WALNUTS  29 

The  Southwestern  Walnut 

Juglans  rupestris,  Engelm. 

The  walnut  of  the  Southwest  grows  into  a  spreading,  lux- 
uriant tree,  where  its  roots  find  water.  But  on  the  canyon 
sides,  and  higher  on  mountain  slopes,  it  becomes  a  stunted 
shrub,  because  of  lack  of  moisture. 

The  nut  is  smaller  than  that  of  the  eastern  walnuts  and 
has  a  thick  shell,  but  the  kernel  is  sweet  and  keeps  its  rich 
flavor  for  a  long  time.  The  Mexicans  and  Indians  are  glad 
to  have  this  nut  added  to  the  stores  they  gather  for  their 
winter  food. 

One  striking  feature  of  this  tree  is  the  pale,  cottony  down 
on  its  twigs,  which  sometimes  persists  three  or  four 
years.  The  long  limbs  droop  at  the  extremities,  almost 
deserving  to  be  called  "weeping."  But  nothing  could 
be  more  cheerful  in  color  than  the  yellow-green  foliage, 
shining  in  the  sun,  against  the  white  bark  of  the  tree. 
In  autumn  the  foliage  turns  bright  yellow.  A  speci- 
men, much  admired,  grows  in  the  Arnold  Arboretum  in 
Boston. 

The  California  Walnut 

J.  calif  ornicuy  Wats. 

The  California  walnut  is  a  stocky,  round-headed  tree, 
with  heavy,  drooping  branches,  and  bark  that  is  white  and 
smooth  on  hmbs  and  on  trunks  of  young  trees.  Ultimately 
the  trunk  turns  nearly  black,  and  i^  checked  into  broad, 
irregular  ridges.  In  bottom  lands,  along  the  courses  of 
rivers,  back  thirty  miles  from  the  coast,  these  trees  are 


30  TREES 

found,  from  the  Sacramento  Valley  to  the  southern  slopes 
of  the  San  Bernardino  Mountains. 

The  foliage  is  bright  pale  green,  feathery,  the  leaflets 
often  curved  to  sickle  form,  showing  paler  silky  linings. 
Cahfornians  admire  and  plant  this  tree  for  shade  and  orna- 
ment. Its  greatest  value  is  as  a  hardy  stock  upon  which 
the  "English"  walnut  is  grafted  by  nurserymen,  for  plant- 
ing orchards  of  this  commercial  nut.  The  fruit  of  the 
native  nut  is  excellent,  but  it  cannot  compete  with  the 
thin-shelled  nut  that  came  from  Persia,  via  England. 

The  Butternut,  White  Walnut,  or  Oilnut 

J.  cinerea,  Linn. 

In  eastern  woods  the  butternut  is  known  by  its  long, 
pointed  nuts,  with  deeply  and  raggedly  sculptured  shells,  in 
fuzzy,  clammy,  sticky  husks  that  stain  the  hands  of  him  who 
attempts  to  get  at  the  oily  meat  before  the  husks  are  dry. 
This  dark  stain  was  an  important  dye  in  the  time  when 
homespun  cotton  cloth  was  worn  by  men  and  boys.  The 
modern  khaki  resembles  in  color  the  "butternut  jeans,"  in 
which  backwoods  regiments  of  the  Civil  War  were  clad. 
Butternut  husks  and  bark  yield  also  a  drug  of  cathartic 
properties. 

Pickling  green  oilnuts  in  their  husks  is  a  housewifely 
industry,  on  the  summer  programme  of  many  housewives 
still,  if  the  woods  near  by  furnish  the  raw  material  for  em- 
ploying her  great-grandmother's  recipe,  brought  from  Eng- 
land, or  perhaps  from  France.  The  green  nuts  are  tested 
with  a  knitting  needle.  If  it  goes  through  them  with  no 
difficulty,  and  yet  the  nuts  are  of  good  size,  they  are  ready. 
Vigorous  rubbing  removes  the  fuzz  after  the  nuts  are 


.t^*' 


v5%' 


CO 


«^^^^!ci-^-' > 


^ik^:^6l  -  ■• 


BLACK    WALNUT 


See  page  SI 


THE  WALNUTS  31 

scalded .  Then  they  are  pickled  whole,  in  spiced  vinegar,  and 
are  a  rare,  delectable  relish  with  meats  for  the  winter  table. 

A  butternut  tree,  beside  the  road,  or  elsewhere,  with 
room  to  grow,  has  a  short  trunk,  and  a  low,  broad  head, 
with  a  downward  droop  to  tlie  horizontal  limbs.  The  bark 
is  Kght  brown,  the  limbs  grayish  green,  the  twigs  and  leaves 
all  ooze  a  clammy,  waxy,  aromatic  sap,  and  are  covered 
with  fine  hairs  of  velvety  abundance. 

Because  it  is  low  and  rather  wayward  in  growth,  late  to 
leaf  out  in  spring,  and  early  to  shed  its  leaves  in  summer, 
the  butternut  is  not  a  good  street  tree.  It  breaks  easily 
in  the  wind,  and  crippled  trees  are  more  common  than 
well-grown  specimens.  Insect  and  fungous  enemies  beset 
the  species,  and  take  advantage  of  breaks  to  invade  the 
twigs  through  the  chambered  pith.  Short-lived  trees 
they  are,  whose  brown,  satiny  wood  is  used  in  cabinet 
work,  but  is  not  plentiful. 

The  Black  Walnut 

J.  nigra,  Linn. 

The  black  walnut  (see  illustratioyis,  pages  SI,  70)  is  the 
second  species  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  the  tree 
chiefly  depended  upon,  during  the  century  just  closed,  by 
the  makers  of  furniture  of  the  more  expensive  grades. 
Black  walnut  wood  is  brown,  with  purplish  tones  in  it,  and 
a  silvery  lustre,  when  polished.  Its  hardness  and  strength 
commend  it  to  the  boat  and  ship  builder.  Gunstock 
factories  use  quantities  of  this  wood.  In  furniture  and  in- 
terior woodwork,  the  curly  walnut,  found  in  the  old  stumps 
of  trees  cut  long  before,  is  especially  sought  for  veneering 
panels.     Old  furniture,  of  designs  that  have  passed  out. 


32  TREES 

are  often  sold  to  the  factories,  and  their  seasoned  wood  cut 
thin  for  veneering. 

Walnut  trees  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  high  were  not 
uncommon  in  the  forests  primeval,  in  the  basin  of  the  Ohio 
and  Wabash  rivers.  These  giants  held  up  their  majestic 
heads  far  over  the  tops  of  oaks  and  maples  in  the  woods. 
They  were  slaughtered,  rolled  together,  and  burned  by  the 
pioneers,  clearing  the  land  for  agriculture.  These  men  had 
a  special  grudge  against  walnut  trees,  they  were  so  stub- 
born— so  hard  to  make  away  with.  How  unfortunate  it  is 
that  our  ancestors  had  the  patience  to  go  forward  and  con- 
quer the  unconquerable  ones.  Had  they  weakly  sur- 
rendered, and  let  these  trees  stand,  we  should  have  had 
them  for  the  various  uses  to  which  we  put  the  finest  lumber 
trees  to-day. 

Unhappily,  the  growing  of  young  trees  has  not  been  ex- 
tensively undertaken  to  replace  those  destroyed.  The 
newer  forestry  is  awake  to  the  need,  and  the  loss  may  be 
made  good,  from  this  time  forward. 

The  black  walnut  is  nearly  globular,  deeply  sculptured, 
with  a  sweet  nut  rich  in  oil,  very  good  if  one  eats  but  a  few 
at  a  time.  Locally,  they  find  their  way  to  market,  but 
they  soon  become  rancid  in  the  grocer's  barrel.  At  home, 
boys  spread  them,  in  their  smooth,  yellow-pitted  husks,  on 
the  roof  of  the  woodshed,  for  instance,  so  the  husks  can 
dry  while  the  nuts  are  seasoning.  No  walnut  opens  its 
husk  in  regular  segments,  as  the  hickories  all  do.  But  the 
husking  is  not  hard.  The  thick  shells  require  careful  man- 
agement of  the  hammer  or  nut-cracker,  to  avoid  breaking 
the  meats. 

Dark  as  is  its  wood  and  bark,  no  walnut  tree  in  full  leaf 
is  sombre.     The  foliage  is  bright,  lustrous,  yellow-green. 


THE  WALNUTS  33 

graceful,  dancing.  A  majestic  tree,  with  a  luxuriant 
crown  from  May  till  September,  this  walnut  needs  room 
to  display  its  notable  contour  and  size.  It  deserves  more 
popularity  than  it  enjoys  as  a  tree  for  parks.  No  tree  is 
more  interesting  to  watch  as  it  grows. 

The  bitter  spongy  husk  deters  the  squirrels  from  gnaw- 
ing into  the  nut  until  the  husk  is  dry  and  brittle.  Hidden 
in  the  ground,  the  shell  absorbs  moisture,  and  winter  frost 
cracks  it,  by  the  gentle  but  irresistible  force  of  expanding 
particles  of  water  as  they  turn  to  ice.  So  the  plantlet  has 
no  hindrance  to  its  growth  when  spring  opens. 

Imitating  nature,  the  nurseryman  lays  his  walnuts  and 
butternuts  in  a  bed  of  sand  or  gravel,  one  layer  above  an- 
other, and  lets  the  rain  and  the  cold  do  the  rest.  In 
spring  the  "stratified ''  nuts  are  ready  for  planting.  Some- 
times careful  cracking  of  the  shell  prepares  the  nut  to 
sprout  when  planted. 

The  Japanese  walnuts  (J.  Sieboldiana  and  J.  cordiformis) 
are  grown  to  a  Hmited  extent  in  states  where  the  EngHsh 
walnut  is  not  hardy.  They  are  butternuts,  and  very 
much  superior  to  our  native  species.  A  Manchurian  wal- 
nut has  been  successfully  introduced,  but  few  people 
but  the  pioneers  in  nut  culture  know  anything  about  these 
exotic  species.  South  America  and  the  West  Indies  have 
native  species.  So  we  shall  not  be  surprised,  in  our 
travels,  to  find  walnuts  in  the  woods  of  many  continents. 

The  English  Walnut 

J.    regiuy  Linn. 

Originally  at  home  in  the  forests  of  Persia  and  north- 
western India,  the  Enghsh  walnut  was  growTi  for  its  ex- 


34  TREES 

cellent  nuts  in  the  warm  countries  of  Europe  and  Asia. 
It  was  a  tree  of  great  reputation  when  Linnaeus  gave  it  the 
specific  name  that  means  royal.  Indeed,  this  is  the  tree 
which  gave  to  all  the  family  the  name  ^'Juglans,^'  which 
means,  "Jove's  acorn,"  in  the  writings  of  Roman  authors. 
Kings  made  each  other  presents  of  these  nuts,  and  so  the 
range  of  the  species  was  extended,  even  to  England,  by  the 
planting  of  nuts  from  the  south. 

It  became  the  fad  of  gardeners,  before  the  fifteenth 
century,  to  improve  the  varieties,  and  to  compete  with 
others  in  getting  the  thinnest  shell,  the  largest  nut,  the 
sweetest  kernel,  just  as  horticultiu-ists  do  now.  In  1640 
the  herbalist  Parkinson  wrote  about  a  variety  of  "French 
wallnuts,  which  are  the  greatest  of  any,  within  whose  shell 
are  often  put  a  paire  of  fine  gloves,  neatly  foulded  up  to- 
gether." Another  variety  he  mentions  "whose  shell  is  so 
tender  that  it  may  easily  be  broken  between  one's  fingers, 
and  the  nut  itsself  is  very  sweete." 

In  England,  the  climate  prevents  the  ripening  of  the 
fruit  of  walnut  trees.  But  the  nuts  reach  good  size,  and 
are  pickled  green,  for  use  as  a  relish;  or  made  into  catsups — 
husks  and  all  being  used,  when  a  needle  will  still  puncture 
the  fruit  with  ease. 

In  America,  the  first  importations  of  the  walnuts  came 
from  the  Mediterranean  countries,  by  way  of  England, 
"the  mother  country."  In  contradistinction  to  our 
black  walnuts  and  butternuts,  these  nuts  from  overseas 
were  called  by  the  loyal  colonists  "EngUsh  walnuts," 
and  so  they  remain  to  this  day  in  the  markets  of  this 
country. 

It  was  natural  and  easy  to  grow  these  trees  in  the  South- 
ern states.     But  little  had  been  done  to  improve  them,  or 


THE  WALNUTS  35 

to  grow  them  extensively  for  market,  until  California 
undertook  to  compete  with  Europe  for  the  growing  Amer- 
ican trade.  Now  the  crop  reaches  thousands  of  tons 
of  nuts,  and  millions  of  dollars  come  back  each  year 
to  the  owners  of  walnut  ranches.  Hardy  varieties  have 
extended  the  range  of  nut-orcharding;  and  so  has  the 
grafting  of  tender  varieties  on  stock  of  the  native  black 
walnut  of  California. 

The  beauty  of  this  Eurasian  walnut  tree  would  justify 
planting  it  merely  for  the  adornment  of  parks  and  private 
grounds.  Its  broad  dome  of  bright  green  foliage  in  sum- 
mer, and  its  clean  gray  trunk  and  bare  branches  in  winter, 
are  attractive  features  in  a  landscape  that  has  few  de- 
ciduous trees.  A  fine  dooryard  tree  that  bears  delicious 
nuts,  after  furnishing  a  grateful  shade  all  summer,  is  de- 
serving the  popularity  it  enjoys  with  small  farmers  and 
owners  of  the  simplest  California  homes. 

As  a  lumber  tree,  the  walnut  of  Europe  has  long  been 
commercially  important.  It  is  the  staple  wood  for  gun- 
stocks,  and  during  wars  the  price  has  reached  absurd 
heights,  one  country  bidding  against  its  rival  to  get  con- 
trol of  the  visible  supply.  Furniture  makers  use  quanti- 
ties of  the  curly  walnut  often  found  in  stumps  of  old  trees. 
The  heart  wood,  always  a  rich  brown,  is  often  watered  and 
crimped  in  curious  and  intricate  patterns,  that  when 
polished  blend  the  loveliest  dark  and  light  shades  with  the 
characteristic  walnut  lustre,  to  reward  the  skilled  crafts- 
man. 

In  the  United  States  this  wood  is  rarely  seen,  because 
the  trees  are  grown  for  their  nuts.  They  require  several 
years  to  come  into  bearing,  are  long-lived,  have  few  ene- 
mies, and  need  little  pruning  as  bearing  age  approaches. 


36  TREES 


THE  HICKORIES 

Americans  have  a  right  to  be  proud  that  the  twelve 
hickory  species  are  all  natives  of  this  country.  Eleven  of 
the  twelve  are  found  in  the  eastern  half  of  the  United 
States;  one,  only,  strays  into  the  forests  of  Mexico.  No 
other  country  has  a  native  hickory. 

Indians  of  the  x\lgonkin  tribe  named  this  tree  family,  and 
taught  the  early  colonists  in  Virginia  to  use  for  food  the 
ripe  nuts  of  the  shagbark  and  mockernut.  After  cracking 
the  shells,  the  procedure  was  to  boil  and  strain  the  mixture, 
which  gave  them  a  rich,  soupy  liquid.  Into  this  they 
stirred  a  coarse  meal,  made  by  grinding  between  stones 
the  Indian  corn.  The  mush  was  cooked  slowly,  then  made 
into  cakes,  which  were  baked  on  hot  stones.  No  more 
delicious  nor  wholesome  food  can  be  imagined  than  this. 
Frequently  the  soup  was  eaten  alone;  its  name,  "Powco- 
hicora,"  gave  the  trees  their  English  name,  part  of  which 
the  botanist,  RaflSnesque,  took,  Latinized,  and  set  up  as  the 
name  of  the  genus. 

Cut  a  twig  of  any  hickory  tree,  and  you  realize  that  the 
wood  is  close-grained  and  very  springy.  The  pith  is  solid, 
with  a  star  form  in  cross-section,  corresponding  to  the 
ranking  of  the  leaves  on  the  twigs.  The  wind  strevv^s  no 
branches  under  a  hickory  tree,  for  the  fibres  of  the  wood  are 
strong  and  flexible  enough  to  resist  a  hurricane.  (See  illus- 
trations, pages  6,  71.) 

Hickory  wood  is  unequalled  for  implements  which  must 
resist  great  strain  and  constant  jarring.  The  running-ge^r 
of  wagons  and  carriages,  handles  of  pitchforks,  axes,  and 
like  implements  require  it.     Thin  strips,  woven  into  bask- 


THE  HICKORIES  37 

ets  for  heavy  market  use,  are  almost  indestructible.     No 
fuel  is  better  than  seasoned  hickory  wood. 

Shagbark  or  Shellbark    d'O  rU3  O/^^'fe? 
Hiemia  ovata,  Britt. 

The  shagbark  has  gray  bark  that  is  shed  in  thin,  tough, 
vertical  strips.  Attached  by  the  middle,  these  strips  often 
spring  outward,  at  top  and  bottom,  giving  the  bole  a  most 
untidy  look  {see  illustrations ,  pages,  6,  71),  and  threatening 
the  trousers  of  any  boy  bold  enough  to  try  cHmbing  into 
the  smooth-barked  top  to  beat  off  the  nuts. 

In  spite  of  the  ragged-looking  trunk,  a  shagbark  grown 
in  the  open  is  a  noble  tree.  The  limbs  are  angular,  but 
they  express  strength  to  the  utmost  twig,  as  the  bare  ob- 
long of  the  tree's  lofty  head  is  etched  against  a  wintry  sky. 

The  nuts  are  the  chief  blessing  this  tree  confers  upon  the 
youngsters  of  any  neighborhood.  Individual  trees  differ 
in  the  size  and  quality  of  their  fruit.  The  children  know 
the  best  trees,  and  so  do  the  squirrels,  their  chief  com- 
petitors at  harvest  time. 

Frost  causes  the  eager  lads  to  seek  their  favorite  trees, 
and  underneath  they  find  the  four-parted  husks  dropping 
away  from  the  angled  nuts.  There  is  no  waiting,  as  with 
walnuts,  for  husking  time  to  come.  The  tree  is  prompt 
about  dropping  its  fruit.  Spread  for  a  few  weeks,  where 
they  can  dry,  and  thieving  squirrels  will  let  them  alone, 
hickory  nuts  reach  perfect  condition  for  eating.  Fat, 
proteid,  and  carbohydrates  are  found  in  concentrated  form 
in  those  delicious  meats.  We  may  not  know  their  dietetic 
value,  but  we  all  remember  how  good  and  how  satisfying 
they  are.     No  tree  brings  to  the  human  family  more  val- 


S8  TREES 

uable  offerings  than  this  one,  rugged  and  ragged  though  it 
be. 

The  Big  Shellbark 

H.  lacinata,  Sarg. 

The  big  shellbark,  like  the  little  shellbark,  is  a  common 
forest  tree  in  the  Middle  West  and  Middle  Atlantic  states. 
It  has  a  shaggy  trunk,  stout  limbs,  picturesquely  angular, 
and  it  bears  nuts  that  are  sweet  and  of  delicious  flavor.  In 
winter  the  orange-colored  twigs,  large  terminal  buds,  and 
persistent  stems  of  the  dead  leaves  are  distinguishing 
traits.  These  petioles  shed  the  five  to  nine  long  leaflets 
and  then  stay  on,  their  enlarged  bases  firmly  tied  by  fibre 
bundles  to  the  scar,  though  the  stems  writhe  and  curve  as 
if  eager  to  be  free  to  die  among  the  fallen  blades. 

"Ejng  nuts,"  as  the  fruit  of  this  tree  is  labelled  in  the 
markets,  do  not  equal  the  httle  hickory  nuts  in  quality, 
and  their  thick  shells  cover  meats  very  little  larger.  But 
the  nut  in  its  husk  on  the  tree  is  often  three  inches  long — • 
a  very  impressive  sight  to  hungry  nut-gatherers. 

In  summer  the  downy  leaf -linings  and  the  uncommon 
size  of  the  leaves  best  distinguish  this  tree  from  its  near 
relative,  whose  five  leaflets  are  smooth  throughout,  small, 
very  rarely  counting  seven. 

The  Pecan 

H,  Pecan,  Britt. 

The  pecan  tree  bears  the  best  nuts  in  the  hickory  family. 
This  species  is  coming  to  be  a  profitable  orchard  tree  in 
in^y  sectic^QS  of  the  South.     Most  of  the  pecan  nuts  in  the 


See  page  J^O 


"WHITE    OAK 


See  page  51 
BUR,   OR  MOSSY-CUP,   OAK  —  LEAVES  AND   FRUIT 


THE  mCKORIES  39 

market  come  from  wild  trees  in  the  Mississippi  Basin. 
But  late  years  have  seen  great  strides  taken  to  establish 
pecan  growing  as  a  paying  horticultural  enterprise  in 
states  outside,  as  well  as  within,  the  tree's  natural  range. 
And  these  efforts  are  succeeding. 

Experiment  stations  have  tested  seedling  trees  and 
selected  varieties  of  known  merit,  until  they  know  by 
actual  experiment  that  pecans  can  be  raised  successfully 
in  the  Carolinas  and  in  other  states  v/here  the  native 
species  does  not  grow  wild.  Thin-shelled  varieties,  with 
the  astringent  red  shell-lining  almost  eliminated,  have 
been  bred  by  selection,  and  propagated  by  building  on 
native  stock.  The  trees  have  proved  to  be  fast-growing, 
early-fruiting,  and  easy  to  grow  and  protect  from 
enemies. 

The  market  pays  the  highest  price  for  pecans.  The 
popularity  of  this  nut  is  deserved,  because  by  analysis  it 
has  the  highest  food  value  combined  with  the  most  deli- 
cate and  delicious  flavor.  No  nut  is  so  rich  in  nutriment. 
None  has  so  low  a  percentage  of  waste.  The  demand  for 
nuts  is  constantly  increasing  as  the  public  learns  that  the 
proteid  the  body  needs  can  be  obtained  from  nuts  as  well  as 
from  meat. 

Pecans  have  suffered  in  competition  with  other  nuts  be- 
cause they  are  diflicult  to  get  out  of  the  shells  w^ithout 
breaking  the  meats.  The  old-fashioned  hammer  and 
block  is  not  the  method  for  them.  A  cracker  I  saw  in  use 
on  the  street  corner  in  Chicago  delighted  me.  Clamped 
to  the  nut-vendor's  stall,  it  received  the  nut  between  two 
steel  cups  and,  by  the  turn  of  a  wheel,  crowded  it  so  that 
the  shell  buckled  and  broke  where  it  is  thinnest,  around 
the  middle,  and  the  meat  came  out  whole. 


40  TREES 

The  Mockernut 

H,  alba,  Britt. 

The  mockernut  is  a  mockery  to  him  who  hopes  for  nuts 
like  those  of  either  shagbark.  The  husk  is  often  three 
inches  long.  Inside  is  a  good-sized  nut,  angled  above  the 
middle,  suggesting  the  shagbark.  But  what  a  thick,  ob- 
stinate shell,  when  one  attempts  to  "break  and  enter!" 
And  what  a  trifling,  insipid  meat  one  finds,  to  repay  the 
effort!  Quite  often  there  is  nothing  but  a  spongy  remnant 
or  the  shell  is  empty.     {See  illustration,  'page  7.) 

As  a  shade  tree,  the  mockernut  has  real  value,  showing 
in  winter  a  tall,  slender  pyramidal  form,  with  large  termi- 
nal buds  tipping  the  velvety,  resinous  twigs.  The  bark  is 
smooth  as  that  of  an  ash,  with  shallow,  wavy  furrows,  as  if 
surfaced  with  a  silky  layer  of  new  healing  tissue,  thrown  up 
to  fill  up  all  depressions.  Mockernut  leaves  are  large, 
downy,  yellow-green,  turning  to  gold  in  autumn.  Crushed 
they  give  out  an  aroma  suggesting  a  delicate  perfume. 

The  flowers  are  abundant,  and  yet  the  most  surprising 
show  of  colors  on  this  tree  comes  in  late  April,  when  the 
great  buds  swell.  The  outer  scales  fall,  and  the  inner  ones 
expand  into  ruddy  silken  sheathes  that  stand  erect  around 
the  central  cluster  of  leaves,  not  yet  awake,  and  every 
branch  seems  to  hold  up  a  great  red  tulip!  The  sight  is 
wonderful.  Nothing  looks  more  flower-like  than  these 
opening  hickory  buds,  and  to  the  unobserving  passerby 
the  transformation  is  nothing  short  of  a  miracle.  In  a  day, 
the  leaves  rise  and  spread  their  delicate  leaflets,  lengthen- 
ing and  becoming  smooth,  as  the  now  useless  red  scales 
fall  in  a  shower  to  the  ground. 


THE  HICKORIES  41 

The  Pignut 

H,  glabra,  Britt. 

The  pignut  deserves  the  better  name,  "smooth  hickory," 
a  more  ingratiating  introduction  to  strangers.  A  graceful, 
symmetrical  tree,  with  spreading  limbs  that  end  in  deli- 
cate, pendulous  branches,  and  gray  bark  checked  into  a 
maze  of  intersecting  furrows,  it  is  an  ornament  to  any  park, 
even  in  the  dead  of  winter.  In  summer  the  tree  laughs  in 
the  face  of  the  sun,  its  smooth,  glossy,  yellow-green  leaflets, 
five  to  seven  on  a  stem,  lined  with  pale  green  or  yellow.  In 
spring  the  clustered  fringes  among  the  opening  leaves  are 
the  green  and  gold  stamen  flowers.  The  curiously  angled 
fertile  flowers,  at  the  tips  of  twigs,  are  green,  with  yellow 
stigmas.  Autumn  turns  the  foliage  to  orange  and  brown, 
and  lets  fall  the  pear-shaped  or  rounded  fruit,  each  nut 
obscurely  four-angled  and  held  fast  at  the  base  by  the  thin, 
4-ridged  husk,  that  splits  scarcely  to  the  middle.  The 
kernel  is  insipid,  sometimes  bitter,  occasionally  rather 
sweet.  Country  boys  scorn  the  pignut  trees,  leaving  their 
fruit  for  eager  but  unsophisticated  nut-gatherers  from  the 
towns. 

Pigs  used  to  be  turned  into  the  woods  to  fatten  on  beech- 
and  oak-"  mast."  They  eagerly  devoured  the  thin-shelled 
nuts  of  H.  glabra,  and  thus  the  tree  earned  the  friendly  re- 
gard of  farmers,  and  a  name  that  preserves  an  interesting 
bit  of  pioneer  history. 

The  range  of  the  pignut  is  from  Maine  to  Florida  on  the 
Atlantic  seaboard,  west  to  the  middle  of  Nebraska  and 
Texas,  and  from  Ontario  and   Michigan   south   to   the 


42  TREES 

THE  BEECH 

The  American  Beech 

Fagus  Americanus,  Sweet. 

One  of  the  most  widely  distributed  trees  in  our  country, 
this  is  also  one  of  the  most  useful  and  most  beautiful  in  any 
forest.  It  is  the  sole  representative  of  its  genus  in  the 
Western  Hemisphere.  One  species  is  a  valuable  timber  tree 
in  Europe.  Three  are  natives  of  Asia.  A  genus  near  of  kin 
includes  the  beech  trees  of  the  Southern  Hemisphere, 
twelve  species  in  all.  There  is  closer  resemblance,  however, 
between  our  beeches  and  their  next  of  kin,  the  chestnuts 
and  oaks. 

From  the  Great  Lakes  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  from  Florida 
to  Texas, from  New  England  to  Wisconsin,  beech  trees  grow; 
and  where  they  grow  they  are  very  hkely  to  form  "pure  for- 
ests," on  the  slopes  of  mountains  and  rich  river  bottoms. 
The  largest  specimens  grow  in  the  basin  of  the  lower  Ohio 
River,  and  on  the  warm  slopes  of  the  Alleghany  Mountains. 

Standing  alone,  with  room  for  full  development,  the 
beech  is  a  fine,  symmetrical  tree,  with  horizontal  or  sHghtly 
drooping  branches,  numerous,  thickly  set  with  slender, 
flexible  twigs.  The  stout  trunk  supports  a  round  or 
conical  head  of  very  dense  foliage.  One  hundred  and 
twenty  feet  is  the  maximum  height,  with  a  trunk  diameter 
of  three  to  four  feet.     (See  illustrations ,  pages  22,  30.) 

The  older  the  trees,  the  greater  the  amount  of  red  heart 
wood  in  proportion  to  the  white  sap-wood,  next  to  the 
bark.  Red  and  white  beech  wood  are  distinguished  by 
Imnbermen.     Red    beech    makes    suDerior    floors,    tool- 


THE  BEECH  43 

handles,  chairs,  and  the  like,  and  there  is  no  more  perfect 
fuel  than  seasoned  beech  wood. 

It  is  unreasonable  to  think  that  any  but  the  blind  could  h  ve 
where  beech  trees  grow  and  not  know  these  trees  at  a  glance. 
The  bark  is  close,  unfurrowed,  gray,  often  almost  white,  and 
marked  with  blotches,  often  nearly  round  of  paler  hue. 

The  branches  are  dark  and  smooth  and  the  twigs  pol- 
ished to  the  long,  pointed  winter  buds.  Throughout,  the 
ti*ee  is  a  model  of  elegant  attire,  both  in  color  and  texture 
of  the  investing  bark. 

In  the  growing  season  the  leaves  are  the  tree's  chief  at- 
traction. They  are  closely  plaited,  and  covered  with 
silvery  down,  w^hen  the  bud  scales  are  pushed  off  in  the 
spring.  In  a  day,  the  protective  fuzz  disappears,  and  the 
full-grown  leaf  is  seen,  thin,  strongly  feather-veined,  uni- 
formly green,  saw-toothed.  Summer  shows  the  foliage 
mass  almost  as  fresh,  and  autumn  turns  its  green  to  pale 
gold.  Still  unblemished,  it  clings,  often  until  the  end  of 
winter,  lighting  the  woods  with  a  ghostly  glow,  as  the  rain 
fades  the  color  out.     The  silky  texture  is  never  quite  lost. 

The  delicate  flowers  of  the  beech  tree  are  rarely  seen, 
they  faJe  so  soon;  the  stamen  tassels  drop  off  and  the 
forming  nuts,  with  their  prickly  burs,  are  more  and  more  in 
evidence  in  the  leaf  angles  near  the  ends  of  new  shoots. 
With  the  first  frost  the  burs  open,  the  four  walls  part,  re- 
leasing the  two  nuts,  three-angled,  like  a  grain  of  buckwheat. 

The  name  of  this  grain  was  suggested  by  its  resemblance 
in  form  to  the  beechnut,  or  "buck  mast,"  sweet,  nutritious 
food  of  so  many  dwellers  in  the  forest.  Buck  mast  was  the 
food  of  man  when  he  Uved  in  caves  and  under  the  forest 
cover.  We  know  that  beechnuts  have  a  rich,  delicate 
flavor  tliat  offsets  the  disadvantages  of  their  small  size 


44  TREES 

and  the  difficulty  of  opening  their  thin  but  leathery  shells. 
All  along  the  centuries  European  peoples  have  counted  on 
this  nut,  and  oil  expressed  from  it,  for  their  own  food  and 
the  dried  leaves  for  forage  for  their  cattle  in  winter. 

The  American  pioneer  turned  his  hogs  into  the  beech 
woods  to  fatten  on  the  beech-mast,  and  Thanksgiving 
turkeys  were  always  finer  if  they  competed  with  the  wild 
turkey  on  the  same  fare. 

Birds  and  lesser  mammals  do  much  to  plant  trees  when 
they  carry  away,  for  immediate  or  future  use,  seeds  that 
are  not  winged  for  flight.  Beechnuts  are  light  enough  to 
profit,  to  some  extent,  by  a  high  wind.  And  beech  trees  in 
their  infancy  do  well  under  the  shade  of  other  trees.  So 
each  fruiting  tree  is  the  mother  of  many  young  ones.  But 
the  seedling  trees  are  not  so  numerous  and  important  as 
the  sapling  growth  that  rises  from  the  roots  of  parent 
trees.  By  these  alone,  a  few  isolated  beeches  will  manage 
to  take  possession  of  the  ground  around  them  and  to 
clothe  it  with  so  dense  a  foliage  screen  that  all  young 
growth,  except  certain  ferns  and  grasses,  dies  for  lack  of 
sun.  Before  we  can  realize  what  is  going  on,  the  tract  is  a 
pure  forest  of  beech,  rapidly  enlarging  on  all  sides  by  the 
same  campaign  of  extension. 


THE  CHESTNUTS 

Chestnut  and  Chinquapin 

Casianea  dentata,  Borh.,  and  C.  pumila.  Mill. 

Our  native  chestnut  and  its  little  brother,  the  chin- 
quapin, are  the  American  cousins  of  the  sweet  chestnut  of 


THE  CHESTNUTS  45 

southern  Europe.  Japan  has  contributed  to  American 
horticulture  a  native  species  which  bears  large  but  not 
very  sweet  nuts,  that  are  good  when  cooked.  Our  two 
trees  bear  sweet  nuts,  of  a  flavor  that  no  mode  of  cooking 
improves.  In  truth,  there  is  no  finer  nut;  and  the  time  to 
enjoy  it  to  the  highest  degree  is  a  few  weeks  after  the  frost 
opens  the  burs  and  lets  the  nuts  fall.  "Along  about 
Thanksgiving,"  they  have  lost  some  of  their  moisture  and 
are  prime. 

In  foreign  countries  the  chestnut  is  a  rich,  nourishing 
food,  comparable  to  the  potato.  Who  could  go  into 
ecstasies  over  a  vegetable  that  is  a  staple  food  for  the 
peasants  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  North  Africa?  Our  chestnut 
is  no  staple.  It  is  a  delicacy.  It  is  treasure  trove  from  the 
autumn  woods,  and  the  gathering  of  the  crop  is  a  game  in 
which  boys  and  squirrels  are  rivals. 

Ernest  Thompson  Seton,  always  a  boy,  knows  the  im- 
patience with  which  the  opening  of  the  burs  is  watched  for, 
as  the  belated  frosts  keep  off,  and  the  burs  hang  tantahz- 
ingly  closed.  The  cruel  wounds  made  by  the  spines  and 
the  raw  taste  of  the  immature  nuts  are  poor  recompense 
for  the  labor  of  nutting  before  Nature  gives  the  sign  that 
all's  ready. 

Here  is  Mr.  Seton's  estimate  of  the  chestnut  of  "brown 
October's  woods." 

"Whenever  you  see  something  kept  under  lock  and  key, 
bars  and  bolts,  guarded  and  double-guarded,  you  may  be 
sure  it  is  very  precious,  greatly  coveted.  The  nut  of  this 
tree  is  hung  high  aloft,  wrapped  in  a  silk  wrapper,  which  is 
enclosed  in  a  case  of  sole  leather,  which  again  is  packed  in  a 
mass  of  shock-absorbing,  vermin-proof  pulp,  sealed  up  in  a 
waterproof,  iron-wood  case,  and  finally  cased  in  a  vege- 


46  TREES 

table  porcupine  of  spines,  almost  impregnable.  There  is 
no  nut  so  protected;  there  is  no  nut  in  our  woods  to  com- 
pare with  it  as  food." 

What  a  disaster  then  is  the  newly  arisen  bark  disease 
that  has  already  killed  every  chestnut  tree  throughout 
large  areas  in  the  Eastern  states.  Scientists  have  thus  far 
struggled  with  it  in  vain  and  it  is  probable  that  ail  chest- 
nuts east  of  the  Rockies  are  doomed. 

Chinquapins  grow  to  be  medium-sized  trees  in  Texas 
and  Arkansas,  but  east  of  the  Mississippi  they  are  smaller, 
and  east  of  the  Alleghanies,  mere  shrubby  undergrowth, 
covering  rocky  banks  or  crouching  along  swamp  borders. 
They  are  smaller  throughout,  but  resemble  the  chestnut 
in  leaf,  flowers,  and  fruit.  The  bur  contains  a  single 
nut. 

The  chestnut  tree  grows  large  and  attains  great  age,  its 
sturdy,  rough  gray  trunk  crowned  with  an  oblong  head  of 
irregular  branches,  hidden  in  summer  by  the  abundant 
foliage  mass.  (See  illustration,  page  28.)  The  ugly  cripple 
that  lightning  has  maimed  covers  its  wounds  when  May 
wakes  the  late-opening  buds  and  the  leaves  attain  full 
size. 

Each  leaf  tapers  at  both  ends,  its  length  three  or  four 
times  its  width.  Strong-ribbed  and  sharp-toothed,  and 
wavy  on  the  midrib,  dark,  polished,  like  leather,  these 
units  form  a  wonderful  dome,  lightened  in  midsummer  by 
the  pencil -like  plumes  of  the  staminate  flowers,  with  the 
fertile  ones  at  their  bases.  As  autumn  comes  on  the  leaf 
crown  turns  to  gold,  and  the  mature  fruits  are  still  green 
spiny  balls.  The  first  frost  and  the  time  to  drop  the  nuts 
are  dates  that  every  schoolboy  knows  come  close  together. 

When  a  chestnut  tree  falls  by  the  axe,  the  roots  restore 


THE  OAKS  47 

the  loss  by  sending  up  sprouts  around  the  stump.  The 
mouldering  pile  nourishes  a  circle  of  young  trees,  full  of 
vigor,  because  they  have  the  large  tree's  roots  gathering 
food  for  them.     No  wonder  their  growth  is  rapid. 

Besides  this  mode  of  reproduction,  chestnut  trees,  grow- 
ing here  and  there  throughout  a  mixed  forest,  are  the  off- 
spring of  trees  whose  nuts  were  put  away,  or  dropped  and 
lost  by  squirrels.  When  spring  reheves  the  danger  of 
famine,  many  of  the  rodent  class  abandon  their  winter 
stores  before  they  are  all  devoured.  Such  caches  add 
many  nut  trees  to  our  native  woods. 


THE  OAKS 

This  is  the  great  family  of  the  cup-bearers,  whose  fruit, 
the  acorn,  is  borne  in  a  scaly  cup  that  never  breaks  into 
quarters,  as  does  the  husk  that  holds  a  chestnut,  beechnut, 
or  hickory  nut.  All  oak  trees  bear  acorns  as  soon  as  they 
come  to  fruiting  age.  This  is  the  sign  by  which  they  are 
known  the  world  over.  Seldom  is  a  full-grown  oak  without 
its  little  insignia,  for  the  cups  cling  after  the  nut  falls,  and 
one  grand  division  of  the  family  requires  two  seasons  to 
mature  its  fruit.  For  this  reason,  half-grown  acorns  are 
seen  on  the  twigs  after  the  ripe  ones  fall. 

We  cannot  say  of  oak  trees  that  they  all  have  sturdy 
trunks,  rough  bark,  and  gnarled  limbs,  for  not  all  of  them 
have  these  characteristics.  But  there  is  a  certain  likeness 
in  oak  leaves.  They  are  simple,  five-ranked,  generally 
oval,  and  the  margins  are  generally  cut  into  lobes  by  deep 
or  shallow  bays.  INIost  oak  leaves  have  leathery  texture, 
strong  veins,  and  short  petioles.     They  are  leaves  that  out- 


48  TREES 

last  the  summer,  and  sometimes  persist  until  spring 
growth  unseats  the  stalks;  sometimes,  as  in  the  "live  oaks," 
they  hang  on  three  to  five  years. 

The  twigs  of  oak  trees  are  more  or  less  distinctly  five- 
angled,  and  the  winter  buds  cluster  at  the  ends.  This  in- 
sures a  group  of  young  shoots,  crowded  with  leaves,  on 
the  ends  of  branches,  and  a  dense  outer  dome  of  foliage  on 
the  tree. 

Nearly  three  hundred  distinct  species  of  oaks  are  recog- 
nized by  botanists,  and  the  Hst  is  growing.  New  species 
are  in  the  making.  For  instance,  a  white  oak  and  a  bur 
oak  grow  near  enough  for  the  wind  to  "cross-fertilize" 
their  pistillate  flowers.  The  acorns  of  such  mixed  parent- 
age produce  trees  that  differ  from  both  parents,  yet  reveal 
characteristics  of  both.  They  are  "hybrids,"  and  may  be 
called  new  varieties  of  either  parent.  Other  species  of  oak 
are  intercrossing  by  the  same  process — the  interchange  of 
pollen  at  the  time  of  blossoming.  This  proves  that  the  oak 
family  is  young,  compared  with  many  other  families,  whose 
members  are  too  distantly  related  to  intercross. 

Though  geologically  young,  the  oak  family  is  one  of  the 
most  important,  furnishing  timber  of  superior  strength  and 
durability  for  bridge-building,  ship-building,  and  other 
construction  work.  Tanning  has  depended  largely  upon 
oak  bark.     As  fuel,  all  oak  trees  are  valuable. 

Fifty  species  of  oak  are  native  to  North  American 
forests.  Twice  as  many  grow  east  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains as  west  of  the  Great  Divide.  No  species  naturally 
passes  this  barrier.  The  temperate  zone  species  extend 
southward  into  tropical  regions,  by  keeping  to  high  alti- 
tudes. Thus  we  find  American  oaks  in  the  Andes  and 
Colombia;  Asiatic  species  occur  in  the  Indian  Archi- 


THE  OAKS  49 

pelago.  No  Old  World  species  is  native  to  America. 
Each  continent  has  its  own. 

East  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  the  oaks  hold  a  place  of 
preeminence  among  broad-leaved  trees.  They  are  trees  of 
large  size,  and  they  often  attain  great  age.  They  are 
beautiful  trees,  and  therefore  highly  valued  for  ornamental 
planting.  This  has  led  to  the  introduction  of  oaks  from 
other  countries.  We  have  set  European,  Japanese,  and 
Siberian  oaks  in  our  finest  parks.  Europe  has  borrowed 
from  our  woods  the  red  oak  and  many  others.  All  coun- 
tries are  richer  by  this  horticultural  exchange  of  trees. 

Our  native  oaks  fall  into  two  groups :  the  annual-fruit- 
ing and  the  biennial-fruiting  species.  The  first  group 
matures  its  acorns  in  a  single  season ;  the  second  requires 
two  seasons.  It  happens  that  annuals  have  leaves  with 
rounded  lobes,  while  biennials  have  leaves  with  lobes  that 
end  in  angles  and  bristly  tips.  The  bark  of  the  annual 
trees  is  generally  pale;  that  of  the  biennials,  dark.  Hence 
the  white  oak  group  and  the  black  oak  group  may  be 
easily  distinguished  at  a  glance,  by  the  bark,  the  leaf,  and 
the  acorn  crop. 


THE   WHITE  OAK  GROUP 

The  White  Oak 

Quercus  alba,  Linn. 

The  white  oak  has  no  rival  for  first  place  in  the  esteem 
of  tree-lover  and  lumberman.  Its  broad,  rounded  dome, 
sturdy  trunk,  and  strong  arms  (see  illusirafiofi,  page  SS), 
and  its  wide-ranging  roots  enable  a  solitary  tree  to  resist 


50  TREES 

storms  that  destroy  or  maim  other  kinds.  Strength  and 
tenacity  in  the  fibre  of  root  and  branch  make  it  possible  for 
individuals  to  live  to  a  great  age,  far  beyond  the  two  cen- 
turies required  to  bring  it  to  maturity.  Such  trees  stir 
within  us  a  feeling  of  reverence  and  patriotism.  They  are 
patriarchs  whose  struggles  typify  the  pioneer's  indomitable 
resistance  to  forces  that  destroyed  all  but  the  strong. 

White  oak  trees  in  the  forest  grow  tall,  lose  their  lower 
branches  early,  and  lift  but  a  small  head  to  the  sun.  The 
logs,  quarter-sawed,  reveal  the  broad,  gleaming  "mir- 
rors" that  make  a  white  oak  table  beautiful.  The 
botanist  calls  these  the  medullary  rays — thin,  irregular 
plates  of  tissue-building  cells,  that  extend  out  from  the 
central  pith,  sometimes  quite  to  the  sap-wood,  crowding 
between  the  wood  fibres,  which  in  the  heart-wood  are  no 
longer  alive.  A  slab  will  show  only  an  edge  of  these  mir- 
rors.    But  any  section  from  bark  to  pith  will  reveal  them. 

The  pale  brown  wood  of  the  white  oak  distinctly  shows 
the  narrow  rings  of  annual  growth.  Each  season  begins 
with  a  coarse,  porous  band  of  ''spring  wood,"  followed  by  a 
narrower  band  of  fine,  close-grained  ''summer  wood." 
White  oak  is  streaked  with  irregular,  dark  lines.  These 
are  the  porous  lines  of  spring  wood,  discolored  by  foreign 
matter.  Count  them,  allow  a  year  for  each,  and  you  know 
how  long  one  white  oak  tree  required  to  make  an  inch  of 
wood. 

The  supreme  moment  in  the  white  oak's  year  comes  in 
spring,  when  the  gray  old  tree  wakes,  the  buds  swell  and 
cast  off  their  brown  scales,  and  the  young  leaves  appear. 
The  tree  is  veiled,  not  with  a  garment  of  green,  but  mth  a 
mist  of  rose  and  silver,  each  twig  hung  with  soft  Hmp 
velvety  leaves,  red-lined,  and  covered  with  a  close  mat  of 


THE  OAKS  51 

silky  hairs.  It  is  a  spectacle  that  seems  unreal,  because  it 
is  so  lovely  and  gone  so  soon.  The  protecting  hairs  and 
pigments  disappear,  and  the  green  leafage  takes  its  place, 
brightened  by  the  yellow  tassels  of  the  stamen  flowers,  and 
the  growing  season  is  on. 

In  autumn  the  pale-lined  leaves  of  the  white  oak  turn 
slowly  to  sombre  violet  and  dull  purplish  tones.  Clinging 
there,  after  the  acorns  have  all  fallen  and  been  gathered  by 
squirrels,  the  foliage  fades  into  the  gray  of  the  bark  and 
may  persist  imtil  spring  growth  sets  in. 


The  Bur  Oak 

Q.  macrocarpa,  Michx. 

The  bur  oak  {see  illustration,  page  39)  is  called  the  mossy- 
cup  on  account  of  the  loose,  fringed  scales  about  the  rim  of 
the  cup  that  holds  the  large  acorn — largest  in  the  whole 
oak  family.  Often  the  nut  is  completely  enclosed  by  the 
cup;  often  it  is  small.  This  variable  fruit  is  sweet,  and  it 
is  the  winter  store  of  many  furry  wood-folk. 

The  leaf  has  the  rounded  lobing  of  the  family,  with  the 
special  peculiarity  of  being  almost  cut  in  two  by  a  pair  of 
deep  and  wide  opposite  sinuses,  between  the  broad  middle, 
and  the  narrow,  tapering  base.  Not  all  leaves  show  this 
odd  form,  but  it  is  the  prevailing  pattern.  The  dark  green 
blade  has  a  pale,  fuzzy  lining,  that  lasts  until  the  leaves 
turn  brown  and  yellow. 

The  bur  oak  is  a  ruf::ged,  ragged  tree,  compared  with  the 
white  oak.  Its  irreguhir  form  is  picturesque,  its  wayward 
limbs  are  clothed  in  a  loose  garment  of  untidy,  half-shed 
bark.     The  twigs  are  roughened  with  broad,  corky  wings. 


52  TREES 

The  trunk  is  brownish,  with  loosened  flakes  of  gray,  sep- 
arated by  shallow  fissures. 

The  wood  is  classed  with  white  oak,  though  darker  in 
color.  It  has  the  same  ornamental  mirrors,  dear  to  the 
heart  of  the  cabinet-maker.  It  serves  all  the  purposes  for 
which  a  tough,  strong,  durable  wood  is  needed. 

The  range  of  the  species  is  from  Nova  Scotia  to  Mon- 
tana, and  it  grows  in  large  tracts  from  Winnipeg  to  Texas, 
doing  well  in  the  arid  soil  of  western  Nebraska  and 
Dakota.  Suckers  from  the  roots  spread  these  trees  till 
they  form  the  "oak  openings"  of  the  bluffs  of  the  Missouri 
and  other  streams  of  Iowa  and  Minnesota.  In  Kansas 
it  is  the  commonest  oak  tree.  The  largest  trees  of  this 
species  grow  in  rich  bottom  lands  in  the  Ohio  Valley. 

The  Post  Oak 

Q.  minor,  Sarg. 

The  post  oak  has  wood  that  is  noted  for  its  durability 
when  placed  in  contact  with  the  soil.  It  is  in  demand  for 
fence  posts,  railroad  ties,  and  for  casks  and  boat  timbers. 
*'Iron  oak"  is  a  name  that  refers  to  the  qualities  of  the 
wood.  "Knees"  of  post  oak  used  to  be  especially  in 
demand. 

In  the  Mississippi  Basin  this  tree  attains  its  largest 
size  and  greatest  abundance  on  gravelly  uplands.  It  is 
the  commonest  oak  of  central  Texas,  on  the  sandy  plains 
and  limestone  hills.  Farther  north,  it  is  more  rare  and 
smaller,  becoming  an  undersized  oak  in  New  York  and 
westward  to  Kansas. 

In  winter  the  post  oak  keeps  its  cloak  of  harsh-feeling, 
thick,  coarse- veined  leaves.     Tough  fibres  fasten  them  to 


THE  OAKS  53 

the  twigs.  In  summer  the  fohage  mass  is  almost  black, 
with  gray  leaf-linings.  The  lobes  and  sinuses  are  large 
and  squarish,  the  blades  four  or  five  inches  long.  The 
limbs,  tortuous,  horizontal,  form  a  dense  head. 

The  Chestnut  Oak 
Q.  Prinus,  Linn. 

The  chestnut  oak  has  many  nicknames  and  all  are  descrip- 
tive. Its  leaves  are  similar  in  outline  and  size  to  those  of 
the  chestnut.  The  margin  is  coarsely  toothed,  not  lobed, 
like  the  typical  oak  leaf.  "Tanbark  oak"  refers  to  the 
rich  store  of  tannin  in  the  bark,  which  makes  this  species 
the  victim  of  the  bark-peeler  for  the  tanneries  wherever 
it  grows.  "Rock  chestnut  oak"  is  a  title  that  lumbermen 
have  given  to  the  oak  with  exceptionally  hard  w^ood,  heavy 
and  durable  in  soil,  adapted  for  railroad  ties,  posts,  and  the 
like. 

Unlike  other  white  oaks,  the  bark  of  this  tree  is  dark  in 
color  and  deeply  fissured.  Without  a  look  at  the  leaves, 
one  might  call  it  a  black  oak. 

The  centre  of  distribution  for  this  species  seems  to  be  the 
foothill  country  of  the  Appalachian  Mountains,  in  Ten- 
nessee and  North  Carolina.  Here  it  predominates,  and 
grows  to  its  largest  size.  From  Maine  to  Georgia  it 
chooses  rocky,  dry  uplands,  grows  vigorously  and  rapidly, 
and  its  acorns  often  sprout  before  falling  from  the 
cup! 

The  chestnut  oak  is  one  of  the  most  desirable  kinds  of 
trees  to  plant  in  parks.  It  is  symmetrical,  with  handsome 
bark  and  foliage.  The  leaves  turn  yellow  and  keep  their 
fine  texture  through  the  season.     The  acorn  is  one  of  the 


54  TREES 

handsomest  and  largest,  and  squirrels  are  delighted  with 
its  sweet  kernel. 

The  Mississippi  Valley  Chestnut  Oak 

Q.  acuminata,  Sarg. 

In  the  Mississippi  Valley  the  chestnut  oak  is  Q.  acu- 
minata, Sarg.,  with  a  more  slender  and  more  finely-toothed 
leaf  that  bears  a  very  close  resemblance  to  that  of  the 
chestnut.  The  foliage  mass  is  brilliant,  yellow-green,  each 
leaf  with  a  pale  lining,  and  hung  on  a  flexible  stem. 
"Yellow  oak"  is  another  name,  earned  again  when  in 
autumn  the  leaves  turn  to  orange  shades  mingled  with  red. 

On  the  Wabash  River  banks  these  trees  surpass  one 
hundred  feet  in  height  and  three  feet  in  diameter.  The 
base  of  the  trunk  is  often  buttressed.  Back  from  the  rich 
bottom  lands,  on  limestone  and  flinty  ridges,  where  water 
is  scarce,  these  trees  are  stunted.  In  parks  they  are 
handsome,  and  very  desirable.  The  bark  is  silvery  white, 
tinged  with  brown,  and  rarely  exceeds  one  half  an  inch  in 
thickness. 

The  Swamp  White  Oak 

Q.  platanoides,  Sudw. 

The  swamp  white  oak  loves  to  stand  in  wet  ground, 
sometimes  even  in  actual  swamps.  Its  small  branches 
shed  their  bark  like  the  buttonwood,  the  flakes  curling 
back  and  showing  the  bright  green  under  layer.  On 
the  trunk  the  bark  is  thick,  and  broken  irregularly 
into  broad,  flat  ridges  coated  with  close,  gray-brown 
scales  often  tinged  with  red. 


-JJ"«^3i*'»>  , 


See  page  65 


HORSE-CHESTNUT    IN    BLOSSOM 


!See  page  6' J 


WEEPING    WILLOW 


THE  OAKS  55 

In  its  youth  the  swamp  white  oak  is  comely  and  sym- 
metrical, its  untidy  moulting  habit  concealed  by  the 
abundant  foliage.  One  botanist  calls  this  species  bicolor, 
because  the  polished  yellow-green  upper  surfaces  contrast 
so  pleasantly  with  the  white  scurf  that  lines  each  leaf 
throughout  the  summer.  Yellow  is  the  autumn  color. 
Never  a  hint  of  red  warms  this  oak  of  the  swamps,  even 
when  planted  as  a  street  or  park  tree  in  well-drained 
ground. 

The  Basket  Oak 

Q.  Michauxii,  Nutt. 

The  basket  oak  is  so  like  the  preceding  species  as  to  be 
listed  by  some  botanists  as  the  southern  form  of  Q. 
jplatanoides.  They  meet  on  a  vague  line  that  crosses 
Maryland,  Kentucky,  and  Tennessee.  Both  have  large 
leaves  silver-lined,  with  undulating  border,  of  the  chestnut 
oak  pattern.  Both  are  trees  of  the  waterside,  tail,  with 
round  heads  of  gnarled  limbs.  The  red-tinged  white 
bark  sets  the  basket  oak  apart  from  all  others.  Its  head 
is  broader  and  its  trunk  stouter  than  in  the  other  species. 
The  paired  acorns  are  almost  without  stalks,  the  nuts 
large,  the  kernels  sweet.  In  autumn,  farmers  turn  their 
hogs  into  the  woods  to  fatten  on  tliis  oak-mast.  The 
edibility  of  these  nuts  may  account  for  the  common  name, 
"cow  oak." 

The  wood  splits  readily  into  thin,  tough  plates  of  the 
summer  wood.  This  is  because  the  layer  formed  in 
spring  is  very  porous.  Bushel  baskets,  china  crates,  and 
similar  woven  wares  arc  made  of  these  oak  splints.  The 
wood  is  also  used  in  cooperage  and  implement  construc- 
tion, and  it  makes  excellent  firewood. 


56  TREES 

The  Live  Oak 
Q.  Virginiana,  Mill. 

The  live  oak  with  its  small  oval  leaves,  without  a  cleft 
in  the  plain  margins,  looks  like  anything  but  an  oak  to  the 
Northerner  who  walks  along  a  street  planted  with  this 
evergreen  in  Richmond  or  New  Orleans.  It  is  not 
especially  good  for  street  use,  though  often  chosen.  It 
develops  a  broad,  rounded  dome,  by  the  lengthening 
of  the  irregular  limbs  in  a  horizontal  direction.  The 
trunk  becomes  massive  and  buttressed  to  support  the 
burden. 

The  "knees"  of  this  oak  were  in  keenest  demand  for 
ship-building  before  steel  took  the  place  of  wood.  In  all 
lines  of  construction,  this  lumber  ranks  with  the  best  white 
oak.  The  short  trunk  is  the  disadvantage,  from  the 
lumberman's  viewpoint.  Its  beauty,  when  polished, 
would  make  it  the  wood  'par  excellence  for  elegant  furni- 
ture, except  that  it  is  difficult  to  work,  and  it  sphts 
easily. 

The  Spanish  moss  that  drapes  the  limbs  of  live  oaks  in 
the  South  gives  them  a  greenish  pallor  and  an  unkempt 
appearance  that  seems  more  interesting  than  beautiful 
to  many  observers.  It  is  only  when  the  sight  is  familiar, 
I  think,  that  it  is  pleasing.  Northern  trees  are  so  clean- 
limbed and  so  regular  about  shedding  their  leaves  when 
they  fade,  that  these  patient  hosts,  loaded  down  with  the 
pendent  skeins  of  the  tillandsia,  seem  to  be  imposed  upon. 
In  fact,  the  "moss"  is  not  a  parasite,  sapping  the  life  of 
the  tree,  but  a  lodger,  that  finds  its  own  food  supply  with- 
out help. 


THE  OAKS  57 

California  White  Oak 

Q.  lobatay  Nee. 

The  California  white  oak  far  exceeds  the  Eastern  white 
oak  in  the  spread  of  its  miglity  arms.  The  dome  is  often 
two  hundred  feet  m  breadth  and  the  trunk  reaches  ten 
feet  in  diameter.  Such  specimens  are  often  low  in  pro- 
portion, the  trunk  breaking  into  its  grand  divisions  within 
tw^enty  feet  of  the  ground.  The  ultimate  spray  is  made  of 
slender,  supple  twigs,  on  which  the  many-lobed  leaves 
taper  to  the  short  stalks.  Dark  green  above,  the  blades 
are  lined  with  pale  pubescence.  The  acorns  are  slender, 
l^ointed,  and  often  exceed  two  inches  in  length.  Their  cups 
are  comparatively  shallow,  and  they  fall  out  when  ripe. 

The  bare  framework  of  one  of  these  giant  oaks  shows  a 
wonderful  maze  of  gnarled  branches,  whose  grotesque 
angularities  are  multiplied  with  added  years  and  com- 
plicated by  damage  and  repair. 

It  is  hard  to  say  whether  the  grace  and  nobility  of  the 
verdure-clad  tree,  or  the  tortuous  branching  system  re- 
vealed in  winter,  appeals  more  strongly  to  the  admiration 
of  the  stranger  and  the  pride  of  the  native  Calif oniian, 
who  delights  in  this  noble  oak  at  all  seasons.  Its  com- 
paratively worthless  wood  has  spared  the  trees  to  adorn  the 
park-like  landscapes  of  the  wide  middle  valleys  of  the 
state. 

Pacific  Post  Oak 

Q.  Garryatia,  Hook. 

The  Pacific  post  oak  is  the  only  oak  in  British  Columbia, 
whence  it  follows  down  the  valleys  of  the  Coast  Range  to 


58  TREES 

the  Santa  Cniz  Mountains.  It  is  a  tree  nearly  one 
hundred  feet  high,  with  a  broad,  compact  head,  in  western 
Washington  and  Oregon.  Dark  green,  lustrous  leaves, 
with  paler  linings,  attain  almost  a  leathery  texture  when 
full  grown.  They  are  four  to  six  inches  long  and  coarsely 
lobed.     In  autumn  they  sometimes  turn  bright  scarlet. 

The  wood  is  hard,  strong,  tough,  and  close-grained.  It 
is  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  wagons  and  furniture, 
and  in  ship-building  and  cooperage.     It  is  a  superior  fuel. 


THE  BLACK  OAK  GROUP 

A  large  group  of  our  native  oaks  require  two  seasons  to 
mature  their  acorns;  have  dark-colored  bark  and  foliage, 
have  leaves  whose  lobes  are  sharp-angled  and  taper  to 
bristly  points  and  tough  acorn  shells  lined  with  a  silky -hairy 
coat. 

The  Black  Oak 

Q>  velutinay  Lam. 

The  black  oak  of  the  vast  region  east  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  is  the  type  or  pattern  species.  Its  leathery, 
dark  green  leaves  are  divided  by  curving  sinuses  into 
squarish  lobes,  each  ending  in  one  or  more  bristly  tips. 
The  lobes  are  paired,  and  each  has  a  strong  vein  from  the 
midrib.  Underneath,  the  leaf  is  always  scurfy,  even  when 
the  ripening  turns  its  color  from  bronze  to  brown,  yellow 
or  dull  red. 

Under  the  deep-furrowed,  brown  surface  bark  is  a  yellow 
layer,  rich  in  tannin,  and  a  dyestuff  called  quercitron.  This 
makes  the  tree  valuable  for  its  bark.     The  wood  is  coarse- 


THE  OAKS  59 

grained,  hard,  difficult  to  work,  and  chiefly  employed  as 
fuel. 

A  distinguishing  trait  of  the  bare  tree  is  the  large  fuzzy 
winter  bud.  The  unfolding  leaves  in  spring  are  bright  red 
above,  with  a  silvery  lining. 

The  autumn  acorn  crop  may  be  heavy  or  light.  Trees 
have  their  "off  years,"  for  various  reasons.  But  always, 
as  leaves  and  fruit  fall  and  bare  the  twigs,  one  sees,  among 
the  winter  buds,  the  half -grown  acorns  waiting  for  their 
second  season  of  growth. 

The  pointed  nut  soon  loosens,  for  the  cup  though  deep 
has  straight  sides.     The  kernel  is  yellow  and  bitter. 

The  Scarlet  Oak 

Q.  coccinea,  Moench. 

The  scarlet  oak  is  like  a  flaming  torch  set  among  the  dull 
browns  and  yellows  in  our  autumnal  woods.  In  spring  the 
opening  leaves  are  red ;  so  are  the  tasselled  catkins  and  the 
forked  pistils,  that  turn  into  the  acorns  later  on.  This  is  a 
favorite  ornamental  tree  in  Europe  and  our  own  country. 
Its  points  of  beauty  are  not  all  in  its  colors. 

The  tree  is  slender,  delicate  in  branch,  twig,  and  leaf — 
quite  out  of  the  sturdy,  picturesque  class  in  which  most 
oaks  belong.  The  leaf  is  thin,  silky  smooth,  its  lobes  sep- 
arated by  sinuses  so  deep  that  it  is  a  mere  skeleton  com- 
pared with  the  black  oak's.  The  trimness  of  the  leaf  is 
matched  by  the  neat  acorn,  whose  scaly  cup  has  none  of 
the  looseness  seen  in  the  burly  black  oak.  The  scales  are 
smooth,  tight-fitting,  and  they  curl  in  at  the  rim. 

There  is  lightness  and  grace  in  a  scarlet  oak,  for  its  twigs 
are  slim  and  supple  as  a  willow's,  and  the  leaves  flutter  on 


60  TREES 

long,  flexible  stems.  Above  the  drifts  of  the  first  snowfall, 
the  brilliance  of  the  scarlet  foliage  makes  a  picture  long  to 
be  remembered  against  the  blue  of  a  clear  autumnal  sky. 
The  largest  trees  of  this  species  grow  in  the  fertile  up- 
lands in  the  Ohio  Valley.  But  the  most  brilliant  hues  are 
seen  in  trees  of  smaller  size,  that  grow  in  New  England 
woods.  In  the  comparatively  dull-hued  autumn  woods  of 
Iowa  and  Nebraska  the  scarlet  oak  is  the  most  vivid  and 
most  admired  tree. 

The  Pin  Oak 

Q.    palustris,   Linn. 

The  pin  oak  earns  its  name  by  the  sharp,  short,  spur- 
like twigs  that  cluster  on  the  branches,  crowding  each 
other  to  death  and  then  persisting  to  give  the  tree  a  bristly 
appearance.  The  tree  in  winter  bears  small  resemblance 
to  other  oaks.  The  trunk  is  slender,  the  shaft  carried  up 
to  the  top,  as  straight  as  a  pine's.  The  branches  are  very 
numerous  and  regular,  striking  out  at  right  angles  from  the 
stem,  the  lower  tier  shorter  than  those  directly  above 
them,  and  drooping  often  to  the  ground. 

On  the  winter  twigs,  among  the  characteristic  "pins," 
are  the  half-grown  acorns  that  proclaim  the  tree  an  oak 
beyond  a  doubt,  and  a  black  oak,  requiring  a  second  sum- 
mer for  the  maturing  of  its  fruit.  It  is  likely  that  there 
will  be  found  on  older  twigs  a  few  of  the  full-grown  acorns, 
or  perhaps  only  the  trim,  shallow  saucers  from  which  the 
shiny,  striped,  brown  acorns  have  fallen.  Hunt  among  the 
dead  leaves  and  these  little  acorns  will  be  discovered  for, 
though  pretty  to  look  at,  they  are  bitter  and  squirrels  leave 
them  where  they  fall. 


THE  OAKS  61 

The  leaves  match  the  slender  twigs  in  delicacy  of  pat- 
tern. Thin,  deeply  cut,  shining,  with  pale  linings,  they 
flutter  on  slender  stems,  smaller  but  often  matching  the 
leaves  of  the  scarlet  oak  in  pattern.  Sometimes  they  are 
more  like  the  red  oak  in  outline.  In  autumn  they  turn  red 
and  are  a  glory  in  the  woods. 

One  trait  has  made  this  tree  a  favorite  for  shade  and 
ornament.  It  has  a  shock  of  fibrous  roots,  and  for  this 
reason  is  easily  transplanted.  It  grows  rapidly  in  any 
moist,  rich  soil.  It  keeps  its  leaves  clean  and  beautiful 
throughout  the  season.  Washington,  D.  C,  has  its  streets 
planted  to  native  trees,  one  species  lining  the  sides  of  a 
single  street  or  avenue  for  miles.  The  pin  oaks  are  superb 
on  the  thoroughfare  that  reaches  from  the  Capitol  to  the 
Navy  Yard.  They  retain  the  beauty  of  their  youth  be- 
cause each  tree  has  been  given  a  chance  to  grow  to  its  best 
estate.  In  spring  the  opening  leaves  and  pistillate  flowers 
are  red,  giving  the  silvery  green  tree- top  a  warm  flush 
that  cheers  the  passerby.  In  European  countries  this 
oak  is  a  prime  favorite  for  public  and  private  parks. 

The  Red  Oak 

Q.  rubra,  Linn. 

The  red  oak  grows  rapidly,  like  the  pin  oak,  and  is  a 
great  favorite  in  parks  overseas,  where  it  takes  on  the  rich 
autumnal  red  shades  that  give  it  its  name  at  home.  Such 
color  is  unknown  in  native  woods  in  England. 

The  head  of  this  oak  is  usually  narrow  and  rounded; 
the  branches,  short  and  stout,  are  inclined  to  go  theh-  own 
way,  giving  the  tree  more  of  picturesqueness  tlian  of 
symmetry,    as   age   advances.     Sometimes   the   dome   is 


62  TREES 

broad  and  rounded  like  that  of  a  white  oak,  and  in  the 
woods,  where  competition  is  keen,  the  trunk  may  reach  one 
hundred  and  fifty  feet  in  height. 

The  red  oak  leaf  is  large,  smooth,  rather  thin,  its  oval 
broken  by  triangular  sinuses  and  forward-aiming  lobes, 
that  end  in  bristly  points.  The  blade  is  broadest  between 
the  apex  and  the  middle,  where  the  two  largest  lobes  are. 
No  oak  has  leaves  more  variable  than  this. 

Under  the  dark  brown,  close-knit  bark  of  a  full-grown 
red  oak  tree  is  a  reddish  layer  that  shows  in  the  furrows. 
The  twigs  and  leaf -stems  are  red.  A  flush  of  pink  covers 
the  opening  leaves,  and  they  are  Hned  with  white  down 
which  is  soon  shed. 

The  bloom  is  very  abundant  and  conspicuous,  the  fringe- 
like  pollen-bearing  aments  four  or  five  inches  long,  droop- 
ing from  the  twigs  in  clusters,  when  the  leaves  are  half- 
grown  in  May. 

The  acorns  of  the  red  oak  are  large,  and  set  in  shallow 
saucers,  with  incurving  rims.  Few  creatures  taste  their 
bitter  white  kernels. 

The  Willow  Oak 

Q.  PhelloSy  Linn. 

The  willow  oak  has  long,  narrow,  pointed  leaves  that 
suggest  a  willow,  and  not  at  all  an  oak.  The  supple  twigs, 
too,  are  willow-like,  and  the  tree  is  a  lover  of  the  waterside. 
But  there  is  the  acorn,  seated  in  a  shallow,  scaly  cup,  like 
a  pin  oak's.  There  is  no  denying  the  tree's  family  con- 
nections. 

A  southern  tree,  deservedly  popular  in  cities  for  shade 
and   ornamental   planting,    it   is   nevertheless   hardy   in 


THE  OAKS  63 

Philadelphia  and  New  York;  and  a  good  little  specimen 
seems  to  thrive  in  Boston,  in  the  Arnold  Arboretum.  As 
a  lumber  tree,  the  species  is  unimportant. 


The  Shingle,  or  Laurel,  Oak 

Q.  imbricaria,  Michx. 

The  shingle  or  laurel  oak  may  be  met  in  any  woodland 
from  Pennsylvania  to  Nebraska,  and  south  to  Georgia  and 
Arkansas.  It  may  be  large  or  small;  a  well-grown  speci- 
men reaches  sixty  feet,  with  a  broad,  pyramidal,  open  head. 

The  chief  beauty  of  the  tree,  at  any  season,  is  the  foliage 
mass — dark,  lustrous,  pale  lined,  the  margin  usually  un- 
broken by  any  indentations.  In  autumn  the  yellow, 
channelled  midribs  turn  red,  and  all  the  blades  to  purplish 
crimson,  and  this  color  stays  a  long  time.  It  is  a  wonder- 
ful sight  to  see  the  evening  sunlight  streaming  through  the 
loose,  open  head  of  a  laurel  oak.  No  wonder  people  plant 
it  for  shade  and  for  the  beauty  it  adds  to  home  grounds  and 
public  parks. 


The  Mountain  Live  Oak 

Q.  chrysolepis,  Liebm. 

The  mountain  live  oak  cannot  be  seen  without  chmbing 
the  western  slopes  of  the  mountains  from  Oregon  to  Lower 
California,  and  eastward  into  New  Mexico  and  Arizona. 
On  levels  where  avalanches  deposit  detritus  from  the 
higher  slopes,  sufficient  fertihty  and  moisture  are  found  to 
maintain  groves  of  these  oaks,  wide-domed,  with  massive, 
horizontal  branches  from  short,  buttressed  trunks — the 


64  TREES 

Western  counterpart  of  the  live  oak  of  the  South,  but  lack- 
ing the  familiar  drapery  of  pale  green  moss. 

The  leaves  are  leathery,  polished,  oval  blades,  one  or  two 
inches  in  length,  with  unbroken  margins,  abundant  on  in- 
tricately divided,  supple  twigs,  that  droop  with  their  bur- 
den and  respond  to  the  lightest  breeze.  The  leaves  per- 
sist until  the  bronze-green  new  foliage  expands  to  replace 
the  old,  and  keep  the  tree-tops  evergreen. 

The  acorns  are  large,  and  their  thick,  shallow  saucers  are 
covered  with  yellow  fuzz.  For  this  character,  the  tree  is 
called  the  gold-cup  oak.  In  June,  the  copious  bloom  is 
yellow.  Even  at  an  altitude  of  eight  thousand  feet  the 
familiar  gold-cup  acorns  are  borne  on  shrubby  oaks  not 
more  than  a  foot  high ! 

The  maximum  height  of  the  species  is  sixty  feet.  The 
wood  is  the  most  valuable  oak  of  the  West  Coast.  It  is 
used  for  wagons  and  agricultural  implements. 

The  Live  Oak 

Q,  agrifolia.  Nee. 

The  live  oak  (Q.  agrifolia,  Nee.)  called  also  "Encina,"  is 
the  huge-limbed,  holly-leaved  live  oak  of  the  lowlands, 
that  reaches  its  greatest  abundance  and  maximum  stature 
in  the  valleys  south  of  San  Francisco  Bay.  The  giant  oaks 
of  the  University  campus  at  Berkeley  stretch  out  ponder- 
ous arms,  in  wayward  fashion,  that  reach  far  from  the 
stocky  trunk  and  often  rest  their  mighty  elbows  on  the 
ground.  The  pointed  acorns,  usually  exceeding  an  inch  in 
length,  are  collected  by  woodpeckers,  and  tucked  away  for 
further  reference  in  holes  they  make  in  the  bark  of  the 
same  oaks. 


THE  HORSE-CHESTNUTS  65 

From  the  mountain  slopes  to  the  sea,  and  from  Mendo- 
cino County  to  Lower  California,  groves  of  this  semi- 
prostrate  giant  are  found,  furnishing  abundant  supply  of 
fuel,  but  no  lumber  of  any  consequence,  because  the 
trunks  are  so  short  and  the  limbs  so  crooked. 


THE    HORSE-CHESTNUTS,  OR    BUCKEYES 

The  Horse-chestnut 

Aesculus  Hippocastanum,  Linn. 

At  the  head  of  this  family  stands  a  stately  tree,  native  of 
the  mountains  of  northern  Greece  and  Asia  Minor,  which 
was  introduced  into  European  parks  and  planted  there  as 
an  avenue  tree  when  landscape  gardening  came  into 
vogue.  By  way  of  England  it  came  to  iVmerica,  and  in 
Eastern  villages  one  often  sees  a  giant  horse-chestnut,  per- 
haps the  sole  remnant  of  the  street  planting  of  an  earlier 
day. 

Longfellow's  "spreading  chestnut  tree"  was  a  horse- 
chestnut.  And  the  boys  who  watched  the  smith  at  his 
work  doubtless  filled  their  pockets  with  the  shiny  brown 
nuts  and  played  the  game  of  "conquerors"  every  autumn 
as  regularly  as  they  flew  their  kites  in  spring.  What  boy 
has  not  tied  a  chestnut  to  each  end  of  a  string,  whirled 
them  round  and  round  at  a  bewildering  rate  of  speed  and 
finally  let  them  fly  to  catch  on  telegraph  wires,  where  they 
dangle  for  months  and  bother  tidy  folks  .^^ 

The  glory  of  the  horse-chestnut  comes  at  blooming 
time,  when  the  upturning  branches,  like  arms  of  candel- 
abra, are  each  tipped  with  a  white  blossom-cluster,  pointed 


66  TREES 

like  a  candle  flame.  (See  illustration,  page  5^.)  Eacli 
flower  of  the  pyramid  has  its  throat-dashes  of  yellow  and 
red,  and  the  curving  yellow  stamens  are  thrust  far  out  of 
the  dainty  ruffled  border  of  the  corolla. 

Bees  and  wasps  make  music  in  the  tree-top,  sucking  the 
nectar  out  of  the  flowers.  Unhappily  for  us  humans, 
caterpillars  of  the  leopard  and  tussock  moths  feed  upon 
the  tender  tissues  of  this  tree,  defacing  the  fohage  and 
making  the  whole  tree  unsightly  by  their  presence. 

Sidewalks  under  horse-chestnut  trees  are  always  littered 
with  something  the  tree  is  dropping.  In  early  spring  the 
shiny,  wax-covered  leaf  buds  cast  off  and  they  stick  to  slate 
and  cement  most  tenaciously.  Scarcely  have  the  folded 
leaflets  spread,  tent-like,  before  some  of  them,  damaged  by 
wind  or  late  frosts  or  insects'  injury,  begin  to  curl  and  drop, 
and  as  the  leaves  attain  full  size,  they  crowd,  and  this 
causes  continual  shedding.  In  early  autumn  the  leaflets 
begin  to  be  cast,  the  seven  fingers  gradually  loosening  from 
the  end  of  the  leaf -stalk;  then  comes  a  day  when  all  of  the 
foliage  mass  lets  go,  and  one  may  wade  knee  deep  under 
the  tree  in  the  dead  leaves.  The  tree  is  still  ugly  from 
clinging  leaf -stems  and  the  slow  breaking  of  the  prickly 
husks  that  enclose  the  nuts. 

With  all  these  faults,  the  horse-chestnut  holds  its  popu- 
larity in  the  suburbs  of  great  cities,  for  it  lives  despite 
smoke  and  soot.  Bushey  Park  in  London  has  ^lyq  rows  of 
these  trees  on  either  side  of  a  wide  avenue.  When  they  are 
in  bloom  the  fact  is  announced  in  the  newspapers  and  all 
London  turns  out  to  see  the  sight.  Paris  uses  the  tree  ex- 
tensively; nearly  twenty  thousand  of  them  line  her  streets, 
and  thrive  despite  the  poverty  of  the  soil. 

The  American  buckeyes  are  less  sturdy  in  form  and  less 


THE  HORSE-CHESTNUTS  C7 

showy  in  flower  than  tlie  European  species,  but  they 
have  the  horse-shoe  print  with  the  nails  in  it  where  the  leaf- 
stalk meets  the  twig.  The  brown  nuts,  with  the  dull  white 
patch  which  fastens  them  in  the  husk,  justifies  the  name 
"buckeye."  One  nibble  at  the  nut  will  prove  to  any  one 
that,  as  a  fruit,  it  is  too  bitter  for  even  horses.  Bitter, 
astringent  bark  is  characteristic  of  the  family. 


The  Ohio  Buckeye 

Ae.  glabra,  Willd. 

The  Ohio  buckeye  has  five  yellow-green  leaflets,  smooth 
when  full  grown,  pale,  greenish  yellow  flowers,  not  at 
all  conspicuous,  and  bitter  nuts  in  spiny  husks.  The 
whole  tree  exhales  a  strong,  disagreeable  odor.  The 
wood  is  peculiarly  adapted  to  the  making  of  artificial 
limbs. 

The  great  abundance  of  this  little  tree  in  the  Ohio  Valley 
accounts  for  Ohio  being  called  the  "Buckeye  State." 

The  Sweet  Buckeye 

Ae.  octandra.  Marsh. 

The  sweet  buckeye  is  a  handsome,  large  tree  with  green- 
ish yellow,  tubular  flowers  and  leaves  of  five  slender, 
elliptical  leaflets.  Cattle  will  eat  the  nuts  and  paste 
made  from  them  is  preferred  by  bookbinders;  it  holds 
well,  and  book-loving  insects  will  not  attack  it.  These 
trees  grow  on  mountain  slopes  of  the  Alleghanies  from 
western  Pennsylvania  southward,  and  west  to  Iowa  and 
Texas. 


68  TREES 

The  California  Buckeye 

Ae.  californica,  Nutt. 

The  California  buckeye  spreads  wide  branches  from  a 
squat  trunk,  and  clothes  its  sturdy  twigs  with  unmistak- 
able horse-chestnut  leaves  and  pyramids  of  white  flowers. 
Sometimes  these  are  tinted  with  rose,  and  the  tree  is  very 
beautiful.  The  brown  nuts  are  irregular  in  shape  and  en- 
closed in  somewhat  pear-shaped,  two-valved  husks. 

This  western  buckeye  follows  the  borders  of  streams 
from  the  Sacramento  Valley  southward;  they  are  largest 
north  of  San  Francisco  Bay,  in  the  canyons  of  the  Coast 
Range. 

Shrubby,  red-flowered  buckeyes,  often  seen  in  gardens 
and  in  the  shrubbery  borders  of  parks,  are  horticultural 
crosses  between  the  European  horse-chestnut  and  a 
shrubby,  red-flowered  native  buckeye  that  occurs  in  the 
lower  Mississippi  Valley. 


THE  LINDENS,  OR  BASSWOODS 

This  tropical  family,  with  about  thirty -five  genera,  has 
a  single  tree  genus,  tilia,  in  North  America.  This  genus 
has  eighteen  or  twenty  species,  all  told,  with  representa- 
tives in  all  temperate  regions  of  the  Northern  Hemisphere, 
with  the  exception  of  Central  America,  Central  Asia,  and 
the  Himalayas. 

Tilia  wood  is  soft,  pale-colored,  light,  of  even  grain, 
adaptable  for  wood-carving,  sounding-boards  of  pianos, 
woodenwares  of  all  kinds,  and  for  the  manufacture  of 


THE  LINDENS  69 

paper.  The  inner  bark  is  tough  and  fibrous.  It  has  been 
used  since  the  human  race  was  young,  in  the  making  of 
ropes,  fish  nets,  and  lilve  necessities.  It  was  a  favorite 
tying  material  in  nurseries  and  greenhouses  until  the  more 
adaptable  raflia  came  in  to  take  its  place.  The  bark  of 
young  trees  is  stripped  in  spring  to  make  the  shoes  of  the 
Russian  peasantry.  An  infusion  of  basswood  flowers  has 
long  been  a  home  remedy  for  indigestion,  nervousness, 
coughs,  and  hoarseness.  Experiments  in  Germany  have 
successfully  extracted  a  table  oil  from  the  seed-balls.  A 
nutritious  paste  resembling  chocolate  has  been  made  from 
its  nuts,  which  are  delicious  when  fresh.  In  winter  the 
buds,  as  well  as  the  tiny  nuts,  stand  between  the  lost  trap- 
per and  starvation.  The  flowers  yield  large  quantities  of 
nectar,  and  honey  made  near  linden  forests  is  unsurpassed 
in  delicacy  of  flavor. 

About  the  time  of  Louis  XIV,  the  French  fashion  arose  of 
planting  avenues  to  lindens,  where  horse-chestnuts  had 
formerly  been  the  favorite  tree.  The  fashion  spread  to 
England  of  bordering  with  "lime  trees"  approaches  to  the 
homes  of  the  gentry.  "Pleached  alleys"  were  made  wit); 
these  fast-growing  trees  that  submitted  so  successfully  to 
severe  pruning  and  training.  All  sorts  of  grotesque  figures 
were  carved  out  of  the  growing  lime  trees  in  the  days  before 
topiary  work  in  gardens  submitted  to  the  rules  of  land- 
scape art,  and  slower  growing  trees  were  chosen  for  such 
purposes. 

In  cultivation,  lindens  have  the  virtues  of  swift  growth, 
superb  framework,  clean,  smooth  bark,  and  late,  profuse, 
beautiful  and  fragrant  bloom,  which  is  followed  by  interest- 
ing seed  clusters,  winged  with  a  pale  blade  that  lightens 
the  foliage  mass.     One  fault  is  the  early  dropping  of  the 


70  TREES 

leaves,  which  are  usually  marred  by  the  wind  soon  after 
they  reach  mature  size.  Propagation  is  easy  from  cut- 
,tings  and  from  seed. 

The  American  Linden,  or  Basswood 

Tilia  Americana^  Linn. 

The  American  linden  or  basswood  is  a  stately  spreading 
tree  reaching  one  hundred  and  twenty  feet  in  height  and  a 
trunk  diameter  of  four  feet.  The  bark  is  brown,  furrowed, 
and  scaly,  the  branches  gray  and  smooth,  the  twigs  ruddy. 
The  alternate  leaves  are  obliquely  heart-shaped,  saw- 
toothed,  with  prominent  veins  that  branch  at  the  base, 
only  on  the  side  next  to  the  petiole.  (See  illustration, 
page  86.)  Occasionally  the  leaf  blades  are  eight  inches 
long.  A  dense  shade  is  cast  by  a  linden  tree  in  midsum- 
mer. 

The  blossoms,  cream-white  and  clustered  on  pale  green> 
leaf-like  blades,  open  by  hundreds  in  June  and  July, 
actually  dripping  with  nectar,  and  illuminating  the  plat- 
forms of  green  leaves.  A  bird  flying  overhead  looks  down 
upon  a  tree  covered  with  broad  leaf  blades  overlapping 
like  shingles  on  a  roof.  It  must  look  underneath  to  see  the 
flowers  that  delight  us  as  we  look  up  into  the  tree-top  from 
our  station  on  the  ground. 

In  midsummer  the  linden  foliage  becomes  coarse  and 
wind- whipped;  the  soft  leaf -substance  is  attacked  by 
insects  that  feed  upon  it;  plant  lice  deface  them  with 
patches  of  honey-dew,  and  the  sticky  surfaces  catch  dust 
and  soot.  Riddled  and  torn,  they  drop  in  desultory 
fashion,  their  faded  yellow  not  at  all  lik€  the  satisfying 
gold  of  beech  and  hickory  leaves. 


Str  i,Uijc  Jl 
Till';     l'.l.\('K     WAl.N'UT 
The  youii^  ^Ik.oIs  arc  vclvcly  aii<l  aininal  ic.      The  pistillalc  flowers.  111 
j,M-(.ii|)s  (.1'  ;!  Id  .••).  arc  on  Icriiiiiial  spikes 


See  page  37 
SHAGBARK    HICKORY    IS    KNOWN    AND    NAMED    BY    ITS 
LOOSE,    STRIPPING    BARK 


THE  LINDENS  71 

The  flight  of  basswood  seeds  on  their  wing-hke  blades 
goes  on  throughout  the  winter.  This  alone  would  account 
for  the  fact  that  basswoods  greatly  outnumbered  all  other 
trees  in  the  virgin  forests  of  the  Ohio  Valley.  The  seeds 
are  not  the  tree's  sole  dependence.  Suckers  grow  up 
about  the  stump  of  a  tree  the  lumberman  has  taken,  or  the 
lightning  has  stricken.  Any  twig  is  likely  to  strike  root, 
and  any  cutting  made  from  a  root  as  well. 

The  finest  specimen  I  know  grew  from  a  walking-stick 
cut  in  the  woods  and  thrust  into  the  ground,  by  a  mere 
chance,  when  the  rambler  reached  home.  It  is  the  roof 
tree  of  a  mansion,  tall  enough  to  waft  its  fragrance  into  the 
third-story  windows,  and  to  reach  high  above  the  chimney 
pots. 

The  range  of  this  tree  extends  from  New  Brunswick  to 
Dakota  and  south  to  Virginia  and  Texas.  Its  wood  is 
used  for  carriage  bodies,  furniture,  cooperage,  paper  pulp, 
charcoal,  and  fuel. 

The  Bee  Tree,  or  White  Basswood 

T,  heterophylla,  Vent. 

The  bee  tree  or  white  basswood  of  the  South  has  nar- 
rower leaves  than  the  species  just  described,  and  they 
vary  in  form  and  size;  but  always  have  Hnings  of  fine, 
silvery  down,  and  the  fruits  are  fuzzy.  A  wonderful, 
dazzling  play  of  white,  pale  green,  and  deeper  shades  is 
seen  when  one  of  these  trees  flutters  its  leaf  mass  against  a 
background,  sombre  with  hemlocks  and  an  undergrowth 
of  rhododendron.  The  favorite  haunts  of  this  species  are 
the  sides  of  mountain  streams.  Wild  bees  store  their 
hoard  of  honey  in  the  hollow  trunks  of  old  trees;  and  it  is 


72  TREES 

the  favorite  holiday  of  many  countr}^  folk  to  locate  these 
natural  hives  and  despoil  them.  In  order  to  do  this  the 
tree  must  come  down,  and  the  revenge  of  the  outraged 
swarm  is  sometimes  a  high  price  to  pay  for  the  stolen 
sweets. 

This  linden  is  found  from  Ithaca,  New  York,  southward 
along  the  Appalachian  Mountains  to  northern  Alabama, 
and  westward  into  Illinois  and  Tennessee.  It  is  best  and 
most  abundant  in  the  mountains  of  eastern  Tennessee 
and  North  Carolina,  at  a  considerable  altitude. 

The  Downy  Basswood 

T.  pubescens,  Ait. 

The  downy  basswood  has  leaves  that  are  green  on  both 
sides,  but  its  young  shoots  and  leaf -linings  are  coated  with 
rusty  hairs.  It  is  a  miniature  throughout  of  the  American 
basswood,  except  that  the  blade  that  bears  the  flower- 
cluster  is  rounded  at  its  base,  while  the  others  taper  nar- 
rowly to  the  short  stem.  This  species  occurs  on  Long 
Island,  and  is  sparingly  seen  along  the  coast  from  the 
Carohnas  to  Texas. 

The  Common  Lime 

T.  vulgaris 

"Unter  den  Linden,"  the  famous  avenue  in  Berlin,  is 
planted  with  the  small-leaved  common  lime  of  Europe,  be- 
side which  the  American  basswood  is  a  coarse-looking  tree. 
Very  disappointing  docked  trees  they  are,  along  this 
thoroughfare;  for  city  streets  are  never  places  where  a  tree 
can  reach  its  best  estate.     In  the  rural  sections  of  France 


THE  LINDENS  7S 

and  Germany  this  tree  reaches  noble  stature  and  great 
age. 

Linnaeus,  the  Swedish  botanist,  had  his  name  from  a  fine 
hnden  tree,  when  his  peasant  fatlier  rose  to  the  dignity  of  a 
surname.  "Linn"  is  the  Swedish  word  for  Hnden. 
"Carl  Linne,"  meaning  "Charles  of  the  linden  tree,"  it  was 
at  first  when  he  played  as  a  boy  in  the  shadow  of  its  great 
branches.  "Carolus  Linnaeus"  he  became  when  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  the  university  at  Upsala,  and 
through  all  time  since. 

Gerarde  discourses  quaintly  upon  the  linden  tree  in  his 
"Crete  Herball"  published  in  England  in  1597.  "The 
male  tree,"  he  says,  "is  to  me  unknown."  We  smile  at 
his  notion  that  there  are  male  and  female  trees  in  this 
family,  but  we  wonder  at  the  accuracy  of  observation 
evinced  by  one  who  lived  and  wTote  before  the  science  of 
botany  had  any  existence.  Evidently  Master  Gerarde 
had  a  good  pair  of  eyes,  and  he  has  well  expressed  the 
things  he  saw.     I  quote  a  paragraph: 

"The  female  line,  or  linden  tree  waxeth  very  great  and 
thicke,  spreading  forth  its  branches  wide  and  fare  abroad, 
being  a  tree  which  yieldeth  a  most  pleasant  shadow,  under 
and  within  whose  boughs  may  be  made  brave  siunmer 
houses  and  banqueting  arbors,  because  the  more  that  it  is 
surcharged  with  weight  of  timlxn*  and  such  like,  the  better 
it  doth  flourish.  The  bark  is  brownish,  very  smooth  and 
plaine  on  the  outside,  but  that  which  is  next  to  the  timber 
is  white,  moist  and  tough,  serving  very  well  for  ropes, 
trases  and  halters.  The  timber  is  whitisli,  ])hiine,  and 
without  knots;  yea,  very  soft  and  gentle  in  the  cutting  and 
handhng.  The  leaves  are  smooth,  greene,  shining  and 
large,  somewhat  snii)t  or  toothed  about  the  edges:  the 
floures  are  little,  whitish,  of  a  good  savour,  and  very  many 


74  TREES 

in  number;  growing  clustered  together  from  out  of  the 
middle  of  the  leaf:  out  of  which  proceedeth  a  small  whitish 
long  narrow  leaf e :  after  the  floures  succeed  cornered  sharp 
pointed  nuts,  of  the  bignesse  of  hasell  nuts.  This  tree 
seemeth  to  be  a  kinde  of  elme,  and  the  people  of  Essex 
(whereas  great  plenty  groweth  by  the  waysides)  do  call  it 
broad-leafed  elme." 


PART  III 

THE  WATER-LOVING  TREES 

The  Poplars — The  Willows — The  Hornbeams — The 
Birches — The  Alders — The  Sycamores,  or  But- 
TONwooDs — The  Gum  Trees — The  Osage  Orange 

THE  POPLARS 

The  poplars  are  plebeian  trees,  but  they  have  a  place  to 
fill  and  they  fill  it  with  credit.  They  are  the  hardy,  rude 
pioneers  that  go  before  and  prepare  the  way  for  nobler 
trees.  Let  a  fire  sweep  a  path  through  the  forest,  and  the 
poplar  is  likely  to  be  the  first  tree  to  fill  the  breach.  The 
trees  produce  abundant  seed,  very  much  like  that  of 
willows,  and  the  wind  sows  it  far  and  wide.  The  young 
trees  love  the  sun,  and  serve  as  nurse  trees  to  more  valu- 
able hardwoods  and  conifers,  that  must  have  shade  until 
they  become  established.  By  the  time  the  more  valuable 
species  are  able  to  take  care  of  themselves,  the  poplars 
have  come  to  maturity  and  disappeared,  for  they  are  quick- 
growing,  short-lived  trees.  The  wind  plays  havoc  with 
their  brittle  branches.  Seldom  has  a  good-sized  poplar 
tree  any  chiim  to  beauty. 

Tenacity  of  life,  if  not  of  fibre,  belongs  to  the  poplar 
tribe.  Twigs  strike  root  and  the  roots  send  up  suckers 
from   underground;   cutting  off  these  suckers  only  en- 

75 


76  TREES 

courages  them  to  fresh  activity.  The  only  way  to  get  rid 
of  the  young  growth  that  springs  up  about  an  old  tree  is  to 
use  the  grubbing-hoe  thoroughly  and  patiently. 

Poplar  blossoms,  borne  in  catkins,  show  the  close  re- 
lationship between  this  genus  and  the  willows.  The 
leaves,  however,  are  always  broad  and  leathery,  and  set  on 
long  stems.  Twenty -five  species  are  known,  twelve  of 
which  are  American. 

The  White  Poplar 

Populus  alba,   LinUo 

The  white  poplar  is  sometimes  called  the  silver-leaved 
poplar  because  its  dark,  glossy  leaves  are  lined  with  cot- 
tony nap.  This  sprightly  contrast  of  light  and  shade  in 
the  foliage  is  most  unusual,  and  very  attractive  in  early 
spring;  but  the  leaf -linings  collect  soot  and  dust,  and  this 
they  carry  to  the  end  of  the  season — a  fact  which  should 
not  be  forgotten  by  those  considering  the  advisability  of 
planting  this  tree  in  a  city  where  much  soft  coal  is 
burned. 

The  white  bark  of  this  European  poplar  reminds  us  of 
the  birch  family,  though  it  has  no  silky  fringe  shedding 
from  the  surface.  The  leaves  often  imitate  the  maple  in 
the  divisions  of  their  margins,  justifying  the  name  "maple- 
leaved  poplar." 

As  a  dooryard  tree  this  species  has  a  wider  popularity 
than  it  deserves.  The  wind  breaks  the  brittle  branches, 
and  when  these  accidents  threaten  its  life,  the  tree  sends  up 
suckers  which  form  a  grove  about  the  parent  trunk,  and 
defy  all  efforts  to  eradicate  them,  until  the  grubbing-hoe 
and  axe  have  been  resorted  to. 


THE  POPLARS  77 

The  Black  Poplar 

P.  nigra,  Linn. 

The  Lombardy  poplar,  a  variety  of  the  black  poplar  of 
Europe,  is  a  familiar  tree  figure  along  roadsides,  and  often 
marks  boundary  lines  between  farms.  Each  tree  is  an 
exclamation  point,  its  branches  short  and  numerous, 
rising  toward  the  zenith.  The  roundish  leaves  that  twinkle 
on  these  aspiring  branches  make  the  tree  pretty  and  in- 
teresting when  young — just  the  thing  to  accent  a  group  of 
round-headed  trees  in  a  park.  But  not  many  years  are 
attained  before  the  top  becomes  choked  with  the  multitude 
of  its  branches.  The  tree  cannot  shed  this  dead  wood  and 
the  beauty  of  its  youth  is  departed.  The  trunk  grows 
coarse,  warty,  and  buttressed  at  the  base.  Suckers  are 
thrown  up  from  the  roots.  There  is  little  left  to  challenge 
admiration.  Since  the  tree  gives  practically  no  shade,  we 
must  believe  that  the  first  planters  were  attracted  by  its 
odd  shape  and  its  readiness  to  grow,  rather  than  by  any 
belief  in  its  fitness  for  avenue  and  highway  planting. 

The  Cottonwood 

P.  delfoidea,  Marsh. 

The  Cottonwood  justifies  its  existence,  if  ever  a  tree  did. 
On  our  Western  plains,  where  the  watercourses  are  slug- 
gish and  few  and  often  run  dry  in  midsummer,  few  tree^ 
grow;  and  the  settler  and  traveler  is  grateful  for  the  cotton- 
woods.  The  pioneer  on  the  Western  prairie  planted  it  for 
shade  and  for  wind-breaks  about  his  first  home.  !Maiiy 
of  these  trees  attain  great  age  and  in  protected  situations 


78  TREES 

are  magnificent  though  unsymmetrical  trees,  shaking  out 
each  spring  a  new  head  of  bright  green,  glossy  f ohage,  each 
leaf  responsive  to  the  lightest  breeze. 

"Necklace-bearing  poplar,"  it  has  been  called,  from 
the  fact  that  children  find  pleasure  in  stringing  for  beads 
the  green,  half-grown  pods  containing  the  minute  seeds. 
They  also  delight  in  gathering  the  long,  red  caterpillar- 
like  catkins  of  the  staminate  flowers,  the  pollen  bearers, 
from  the  sterile  trees,  A  fertile  tree  is  sometimes  counted 
a  nuisance  in  a  dooryard  because  its  pods  set  free  a  great 
mass  of  cotton  that  collects  in  window  screens,  to  the 
annoyance  of  housewives.     But  this  seed  time  is  soon  over. 

Just  these  merits  of  quick  growth,  prettiness,  and  te- 
nacity of  life,  belong  to  the  Carolina  Poplar,  a  variety  of 
native  cottonwood  that  lines  the  streets  of  the  typical 
suburban  tract  opened  near  any  American  city.  The 
leaves  are  large  and  shine  with  a  varnish  which  protects 
them  from  dust  and  smoke.  But  the  wind  breaks  the 
branches,  destroys  the  symmetry  of  the  tree's  head,  and  in 
a  few  years  the  suburban  community  takes  on  a  cheap  and 
ugly  look.  The  wise  promoter  will  alternate  slow-growing 
maples  and  elms  with  the  poplars  so  that  these  permanent 
trees  will  be  ready  to  take  their  places  in  a  few  years. 

The  Aspen 

P.  tremvloides,  Michx. 

The  trembling  aspen,  or  quaking  asp,  is  the  prettiest  tree 
of  all  the  poplar  tribe.  Its  bark  is  gray  and  smooth,  often 
greenish  and  nearly  white.  An  aspen  copse  is  one  of  the 
loveliest  things  in  the  spring  landscape.  In  March  the 
bare,  angular  limbs  show  green  under  their  bark,  one  of  the 


THE  POPLARS  79 

first  prophecies  of  spring;  tlien  the  buds  cast  their  brown 
scales  and  fuzzy  gray  catkins  are  revealed.  There  are  few 
shades  of  olive  and  rose,  few  textures  of  silk  and  velvet 
that  are  not  dupHcated  as  the  catkins  lengthen  and  dance 
like  chenille  fringe  from  every  twig.  With  the  flowers,  the 
new  leaves  open;  each  blade  limp,  silky,  as  it  unrolls,  more 
like  the  finest  white  flannel  than  anything  else.  (See  illus- 
trations,  pages  86-87.)  Soon  the  leaves  shed  all  of  this  hairy, 
protective  coat,  passing  through  various  tones  of  pink  and 
silver  on  their  way  to  their  lustrous,  bright  green  maturity. 
Their  stems  are  flattened  in  a  plane  at  right  angles  with  the 
blade.  Being  long  and  pliant  besides,  they  catch  the  breeze 
on  blade  or  stem,  and  so  the  foliage  is  never  still  on  the 
quietest  of  summer  days.  "Popple"  leaves  twinkle  and 
dance  and  catch  the  sunlight  like  ripples  on  the  surface  of  a 
stream,  wliile  the  foliage  of  oaks  and  other  trees  near  by 
may  be  practically  motionless. 

The  Balsam  Poplar 

P.  halsamifera,  Linn. 

The  balsam  poplar  is  the  balm  of  Gilead  of  the  early 
settlers,  the  Tacamahac  of  the  Northern  Indians.  They 
squeezed  the  fragrant  wax  from  the  winter  buds  and  used  it 
to  seal  up  the  seams  in  their  birch-bark  canoes.  The  bees 
taught  the  Indian  the  uses  of  this  glutinous  secretion, 
which  the  tree  used  to  seal  the  bud-scales  and  thus  keep  out 
water.  When  growth  starts  with  the  stirring  of  the  sap, 
this  wax  softens;  then  the  bees  collect  and  store  it  against  a 
day  of  need .  Whether  their  homes  be  hollow  trees  or  patent 
hives,  weather-cracks  are  carefully  sealed  up  with  this  water- 
proof gum,  which  the  bee-keeper  knows  as  ^^ propolis.''* 


80  TREES 

Forests  of  balm  of  Gilead  cover  much  of  the  vast  British 
possessions  north  of  the  United  States,  and  reach  to  the 
ultimate  islands  of  the  Aleutian  group.  They  dip  down 
into  the  states  as  far  as  Nebraska  and  Nevada.  In  culti- 
vation, the  species  has  proved  itself  a  tree  of  excellent 
habit,  easily  propagated  and  transplanted,  and  of  rapid 
growth.  It  has  all  the  good  points  of  the  Carolina  poplar 
and  lacks  its  besetting  sin  of  becoming  so  soon  an  unsightly 

cripple. 

Narrow-leaved  Cottonwood 

P.  angustifolia,  James. 

Lance-leaved  Cottonwood 

P.  acuminata,  Rydb. 

Mexican  Cottonwood 

P.  Mexicana,  Wesm. 

These  three  cottonwoods  line  the  banks  of  mountain 
streams  at  high  elevations  in  the  great  system  of  mountain 
chains  that  stretch  from  British  Columbia  southward. 
The  dancing  foliage,  bright  green  in  summer,  golden  in 
autumn,  lends  a  charming  color  note  to  the  dun  stretches 
of  arid  plain  and  the  sombre  green  of  pine  forests.  These 
trees  furnish  the  settler  fuel,  shade,  and  wind-breaks  while 
he  is  converting  his  "homestead"  into  a  home. 

Black  Cottonwood 

P.  trichocarpa.  Hook. 

Farther  west,  covering  the  mountain  slopes  from  Alaska 
to  Mexico,  and  liking  even  better  the  moist,  rich  low- 
lands, is  the  black  cotton  wood,  the  giant  of  the  genus, 


THE  POPLARS  81 

reaching  two  hundred  feet  in  height,  and  seven  to  eight  feet 
in  trunk  diameter.  Tall  and  stately,  it  lifts  its  broad 
rounded  crown  upon  heavy  upright  limbs.  In  the  Yo- 
semite  the  dark,  rich  green  of  these  poplar  groves  along  the 
Merced  River  makes  a  rich,  velvet  margin,  glorious  when  it 
turns  to  gold  in  autumn. 

Swamp  Cottonwood 
P.  Iieterophylla,  Linn. 

The  swamp  cottonwood  of  the  South  has  leaves  of  varia- 
ble but  distinctly  poplar  form,  always  large,  broadly  ovate, 
with  slim  round  petioles.  The  white  down  of  the  un- 
folding leaves  often  persists  into  midsummer.  On  ac- 
count of  the  fluttering  leaves  the  trees  were  called,  by  the 
early  Acadians, "  Langiies  de  Jemmes'''  a  mild  calumny  trace- 
able to  the  herbalist,  Gerarde,  who  compares  them  to 
"women's  tongues,  which  seldom  cease  wagging." 

The  wood  of  poplars,  soft,  weak,  and  of  slight  value  for 
fuel  or  lumber,  has  within  two  decades  come  into  a  position 
of  great  economic  importance.  Wood  pulp  is  made  of  it, 
and  out  of  wood  pulp  a  thousand  articles,  from  toys  to 
wheels  of  locomotives,  are  made.  A  state  forester  de- 
clared: *'If  I  could  replace  the  maples  in  the  state  forest  by 
poplars  to-day,  I  would  do  it  gladly.  It  would  be  worth 
thousands  of  dollars  to  the  state." 

THE  WILLOWS 

Along  the  watercourses  the  willow  family  finds  its  most 
congenial  habitat.  It  is  a  very  large  family,  numbering 
more  than  one  hundred  and  seventy  species,  which  are, 


82  TREES 

however,  mostly  shrubs  rather  than  trees.  America  has 
seventy  species  of  willows,  and  new  forms  are  constantly 
being  discovered,  which  are  the  results  of  the  crossing  of 
closely  related  species.  These  "natural  hybrids"  have 
greatly  confused  the  botany  of  the  willow  family. 

Not  more  than  half  a  dozen  American  willows  ever  at- 
tain the  height  of  good-sized  trees,  and  many  of  these  are 
more  commonly  found  in  the  tangled  shrubbery  of  river 
banks,  or  covering  long  semi-arid  strips  of  ground  far  to 
the  north,  or  on  mountain  sides  where  their  growth  is 
stunted.  Little  trees,  six  inches  high,  bearing  the  char- 
acteristic catkins  and  narrow  leaves  of  the  willow,  are 
found  on  the  arctic  tundras. 

The  wood  of  willows  is  pale  in  color,  soft  in  texture,  and 
of  very  little  use  as  lumber  or  fuel,  except  in  localities  where 
trees  are  scarce.  The  Indian  depended  upon  the  inner 
bark  of  the  withy  willow  for  material  for  his  fish  nets  and 
lines,  and  farmers  in  the  pioneer  days  took  the  tough,  supple 
stems,  when  spring  made  the  sap  run  freely,  for  the  binding 
together  of  the  rails  of  their  fences.  Emotted  tight  and 
seasoned,  these  twigs  hardened  and  lasted  for  years. 

In  Europe  the  white  willow  has  long  been  used  for  the 
making  of  wooden  shoes,  artificial  limbs,  and  carriage 
bodies.  Its  wood  makes  the  finest  charcoal  for  gunpowder. 
Willow  wares,  such  as  baskets  and  wicker  furniture,  are  as 
old  as  civilization,  and  that  in  its  primitive  stages.  It  is 
a  common  sight  in  Europe  to  see  groves  of  trees  from 
which  the  long  twigs  have  been  taken  yearly  for  these  uses. 
The  stumps  are  called  "pollards"  and  the  trees  "pollarded 
willows"  whose  discouraging  task  has  been  to  grow  a 
yearly  crop  of  withes  for  the  basket-makers;  yet  each 
spring  finds  them  bristling  with  the  new  growth. 


THE  WILLOWS  83 

The  hosts  of  Caesar  invading  England  in  the  First 
Century  found  the  Britons  defending  themselves  behind 
willow- woven  shields,  and  living  in  huts  of  wattled  willows, 
smeared  with  mud.  From  that  time  to  the  present  the 
uses  of  these  long  shoots  have  multiplied. 

The  roots  of  willows  are  fibrous  and  tough  as  the  shoots. 
For  this  reason  they  serve  a  useful  purpose  in  binding  the 
banks  of  streams,  especially  where  these  are  liable  to  flood. 
Nature  seems  to  have  designed  these  trees  for  just  this 
purpose,  for  a  twig  lying  upon  the  ground  strikes  root  at 
every  joint  if  the  soil  it  falls  on  is  sufficiently  moist.  The 
wind  breaks  off  twigs  and  the  water  carries  them  down 
stream  where  the}'  lodge  on  banks  and  sand  bars,  and  these 
are  soon  covered  with  billows  of  green. 

Willows  start  growth  early  in  spring,  putting  out  their 
catkins,  the  two  sexes  on  different  trees,  before  the  opening 
of  the  leaves.  Before  the  foliage  is  full  gro^vn,  the  light 
seeds,  each  a  minute  speck,  floats  away  in  a  wisp  of  silky 
down.  Its  vitality  lasts  but  a  day,  so  it  must  fall  on  wet 
ground  at  once  in  order  to  grow.  But  the  willow  family  is 
quite  independent  of  its  seeds  in  the  matter  of  propaga- 
tion. Chop  the  roots  and  twigs  into  bits  and  each  will 
grow.  Chop  a  young  willow  tree  into  sticks  and  fence 
posts  and  each  one,  if  it  is  stuck  green  into  the  ground, 
covers  itself  with  a  head  of  leafy  twigs  before  the  season  is 
over. 

Weeping  Willow 

Salix  Bahylonica 

The  weeping  willow,  nmch  planted  in  cemeteries  and 
parks,  came  originally  from  Asia  and  is  remarkable  for  its 


84  TREES 

* 

narrow  leaves  that  seem  fairly  to  drip  from  the  pendulous 
twigs.  (See  illustration,  page  55.)  The  foliage  has  a 
wonderful  lightness  and  cheerfulness  of  expression,  despite 
its  weeping  habit. 

The  Pussy  Willow 

S.   discolor,   Muehl. 

The  pussy  willow  is  the  familiar  bog  willow,  whose  gray, 
silky  catkins  appear  in  earliest  spring.  A  walk  in  the 
woods  in  late  February  often  brings  us  the  charming  sur- 
prise of  a  meeting  with  this  little  tree,  just  when  its  gray 
pussies  are  pushing  out  from  their  brown  scales.  We  cut 
the  twigs  and  bring  them  home  and  watch  the  wonderful 
color  changes  that  mark  the  full  development  of  the 
flowers.  Turning  them  in  the  light,  one  sees  under  the 
sheen  of  silky  hairs  the  varied  and  evanescent  hues  that  glow 
in  a  Hungarian  opal.  In  midsummer  a  pussy  willow  tree  is 
lost  among  the  shrubby  growth  in  any  woods.  It  is  only 
because  it  leads  the  procession  of  the  spring  flowers  that 
every  one  knows  and  loves  it.  {See  illustrations,  pages  86-87,) 


THE  HORNBEAMS 

Two  genera  of  little  trees  in  the  same  family  with  the 
birches  are  frequently  met  in  the  woods,  often  modestly 
hiding  under  the  larger  trees.  One  is  the  solitary  repre- 
sentative of  its  genus:  the  other  has  a  sister  species. 

The  hornbeams  grow  very  slowly  and  their  wood  is  close- 
grained,  heavy,  and  hard.  In  flexibility,  strength,  and 
ability  to  stand  strain,  it  rivals  steel.     Before  metals  so 


THE  HORNBEAMS  85 

generally  became  competitors  of  woods  in  construction 
work,  hornbeam  was  the  only  wood  for  rake  teeth,  levers, 
mallets,  and  especially  for  the  beams  of  ox  yokes.  It  out- 
wore the  stoutest  oak,  the  toughest  elm.  Springiness 
adapted  it  for  fork  handles  and  the  like.  Bowls  and  dishes 
of  hornbeam  lasted  forever,  and  would  never  leak  nor 
crack.  *' Iron  wood"  is  the  name  used  wherever  the  wood 
was  worked. 

American  Hornbeam 

Carpi?ius  Carolinianum,  Walt. 

The  American  hornbeam  has  bluish  gray  bark,  very  fine 
in  texture,  from  which  the  name  "blue  beech,"  is  common 
in  some  localities.  "Water  beech"  points  out  the  tree's 
preference  for  rich  swamp  land. 

The  trunk  and  limbs  are  strangely  swollen,  sometimes 
like  a  fluted  column,  oftener  irregularly,  the  swelling 
under  the  bark  suggesting  the  muscular  development  of  a 
gymnast's  arm. 

In  favorable  places  the  hornbeams  grow  into  regular 
oval  heads,  their  branches  dividing  into  a  multitude  of 
wiry,  supple  twigs.  Crowded  under  oaks  and  other  forest 
growth,  they  crouch  and  writhe;  and  their  heads  flatten 
into  tangled  masses  of  foliage. 

The  delicate  leaves,  strong-ribbed,  oval,  pointed,  turn  to 
red  and  orange  in  autumn.  (See  illustration,  page  87.) 
The  paired  nutlets  are  provided  with  a  parachute  each,  so 
that  the  wind  can  sow  them  broadcast.  This  wing  is  leafy 
in  texture,  shaped  like  a  maple  leaf,  and  curved  into  the 
shape  of  a  boat.  After  they  have  broken  apart,  the  nut- 
lets hang  by  threads,  tough  as  hornbeam  fibres  always  are. 


86  TREES 

At  last,  away  they  sail,  to  start  new  trees  if  they  fall  in 
moist  soil. 

The  European  hornbeam  was  a  favorite  tree  for  making 
the  "pleached  alleys,"  of  which  old-world  garden-lovers 
were  proud.  A  row  of  trees  on  each  side  of  a  promenade 
were  pruned  and  trained  to  cover  an  arching  framework, 
and  to  interlace  their  supple  branches  so  that  at  length  no 
other  framework  was  needed,  and  one  walked  through  a 
tunnel  of  green  so  closely  interlaced  as  to  make  walls  and 
roof  that  shut  out  light  and  wind  and  rain!  Hedges, 
fences,  and  many  fancies  of  the  gardener  were  worked  out 
with  this  hornbeam,  so  willingly  did  it  lend  itseK  to  cutting 
and  moulding  into  curious  forms. 


Hop  Hornbeam 

Ostrya  Virginiana,  Willd. 

The  hop  hornbeam  has  habits  like  the  other  iron  wood  and 
an  equal  reputation  for  the  hardness  of  its  wood.  The 
tree,  however,  wears  scaly,  shaggy  brown  bark,  suggesting 
in  its  manner  of  scaling  off  the  shagbark  hickory.  Its 
nutlets  are  packed  separate  in  loose  papery  bags,  and  to- 
gether form  a  loose,  cone-like  cluster,  like  the  fruit  of  a 
hop  vine.  The  wind  scatters  these  buoyant  little  bags, 
that  travel  far. 

This  tree  often  twists  in  growing,  and  the  trunk  shows 
spiral  furrows.  "Hard-tack,"  "beetle- wood,"  "lever- 
wood" — all  take  us  back  to  the  pioneer  who  put  this  wood 
to  such  good  uses,  and  who  was  glad  to  have  these  little 
trees  growing  in  his  woodlot.  In  hickories,  even,  he  had 
not  the  equal  of  them  for  strength  and  hardness. 


See  page  85 
THE    AMERICAN    HORNBEAM 
A  fruiting  branch  showing  the  thin  beech-hke  leaves  and  the  seeds  on 
their  leafy  triangular  bracts 


THE  BmCIIES  87 

Knowlton's  Ironwood 

0.  Knowlloniy  Co  v. 

Knowlton's  iron  wood  is  found  nowhere  but  in  a  thi'^'^ 
grove  on  the  southern  slope  of  the  canyon  of  the  Colorado 
in  Arizona,  about  seventy  miles  north  of  Flagstaff.  Here 
these  trees  are  numerous,  crouching  under  oaks,  their 
twisted  branches  ending  in  drooping  twigs,  bearing  the 
characteristic  pale  green  hops  in  autumn,  small  oval  leaves, 
and  the  catkin  flowers  in  spring.  Such  a  restricted  dis- 
tribution for  a  distinct  species  of  trees  is  unmatched  in  the 
annals  of  botany. 


THE  BmCHES 

Grace  and  gentility  of  appearance  are  attributes  of  this 
most  interesting,  attractive,  and  valuable  family  of  trees. 
Shabby  gentility,  one  may  insist,  tliinking  of  the  untidy, 
frayed-out  edges  that  adorn  the  silky  outer  bark  of  almost 
every  birch  tree  in  the  woods.  (See  illustration,  page  102.) 
Not  one  of  them,  however,  but  lends  a  note  of  cheerfulness 
to  the  landscape.  There  is  beauty  and  daintiness  in  leaf, 
flower,  and  winged  seed,  and  despite  the  inferiority  of  most 
birch  wood,  the  history  of  the  family  is  a  long  story  of  use- 
fulness to  the  human  race. 

About  thirty  species  of  birches  grow  in  the  Northern 
Hemisphere,  ten  of  them  are  North  American.  The  white 
birch  of  Europe  extends  across  the  northern  half  of  Asia, 
and  is  cultivated  in  delicate  cut-leaved  and  weeping  forms, 
as  a  lawn  and  park  tree  in  this  country. 


88  TKEES 

The  Canoe  Birch 

Betula  papyrifera,  Marsh. 

The  canoe  birch  or  paper  birch  is  the  noblest  member  of 
the  family.  (See  cover  of  book.)  Ernest  Thompson 
Seton  calls  it  "The  White  Queen  of  the  Woods— the 
source  of  food,  drink,  transport,  and  lodging  to  those  who 
dwell  in  the  forest — the  most  bountiful  provider  of  all  the 
trees."  Then  he  enumerates  the  sweet  syrup  yielded  by 
its  sap;  the  meal  made  by  drying  and  grinding  the  inner 
bark;  the  buds  and  catkins  upon  v/hich  the  partridge  feeds; 
and  the  outer  bark,  which  is  its  best  gift  to  primitive 
man. 

"The  broad  sheets  of  this  vegetable  rawhide,  ripped  off 
when  the  weather  is  warm,  and  especially  when  the  sap  is 
moving,  are  tough,  light,  strong,  pliant,  absolutely  water- 
proof, almost  imperishable  in  the  weather;  free  from  in- 
sects, assailable  only  by  fire.  It  roofs  the  settler's  shack 
and  the  forest  Indian's  wigwam.  It  supplies  cups,  pails, 
pots,  pans,  spoons,  boxes;  under  its  protecting  power  the 
matches  are  safe  and  dry;  split  very  thin,  as  is  easily  done, 
it  is  the  WTiting  paper  of  the  woods,  flat,  light,  smooth, 
waterproof,  tinted,  and  scented;  but  the  crowning  glory  of 
the  birch  is  this — it  furnishes  the  indispensable  substance 
for  the  bark  canoe,  whose  making  is  the  highest  industrial 
exploit  of  the  Indian  life." 

From  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific,  and  from  our  northern 
tier  of  states  to  the  arctic  seas,  woodsmen,  red  and  white, 
have  found  this  white-barked  tree  ready  to  their  hand, 
their  sure  defense  against  death  by  cold  and  by  starvation. 
The  weather  is  never  so  wet  but  that  shreds  of  birch  bark 


TIIE  BIRCHES  89 

burn  merrily  to  start  a  campfire,  and  the  timber  of  the 
trunk  burns  readily  green  or  dry. 


The  White  Birch 

B,  populifolia.  Marsh. 

The  wliite  birch  is  a  small,  short-lived  tree  that  grows  in 
swampy  ground,  its  bark  chalky  white  or  grayish,  with 
triangular  rough  patches  of  black,  where  branches  are  or 
have  been.  (The  canoe  birch  has  a  clean  bole,  challvy 
white,  with  none  of  these  ugly  black  patches.) 

A  vagabond  tree  it  is,  with  thin  pointed  leaves  and  long 
pencil-like  catkins  and  seed  cones.  The  chief  contributions 
of  the  poplar-leaved  birch  to  the  well-being  of  men  are  that 
it  clothes  with  beauty  the  most  uniniviting  situations,  and 
that  it  comes  again,  after  fire  or  other  general  slaughter, 
promptly  and  abundantly,  from  stump  and  scattered  seed. 


The  Yellow  Birch 

B.  lutca,  INIichx. 

The  yellow  birch  shows  gleams  of  yellow  under  every  rent 
in  its  gray,  silky,  frayed-out  surface.  Here  is  a  timber  tree 
of  considerable  size  and  value:  its  hard  wood  furnishes  the 
frames  of  northern  sledges;  the  knots  and  burs  make  good 
mallets;  the  curiously  knotted  roots  show  a  curly  grain, 
valuable  to  the  cabinet-maker.  From  New  England  to 
Minnesota,  and  south  along  the  Appalachian  range,  this 
tree  is  found,  always  telling  its  name  by  the  color  of  its 
shaggy  bark. 


90  TREES 

The  Red  Birch 

B.  nigra,  Linn. 

Red  birch  or  river  birch  wears  its  name  in  its  chocolate- 
hued  or  terra-cotta  bark,  whose  scaly  surface  flaunts  a 
series  of  tattered  fringes  to  the  very  twig  ends.  Tall  and 
graceful  fountains  of  living  green,  these  birches  lean  over 
stream  borders  from  Minnesota  and  New  York  to  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico,  and  reach  westward  to  the  foothills  of  the 
Rockies.  Close-grained  and  strong,  the  pale  brown  wood 
is  used  for  furniture,  shoe  lasts,  and  a  multitude  of  wooden- 
wares.  In  the  bayous  of  the  lower  Mississippi,  where  it;^ 
roots  and  the  base  of  the  trunk  are  inundated  for  half  the 
year,  the  tree  reaches  its  greatest  size.  The  cones  stand 
erect  and  shed  their  heart-shaped,  winged  seeds  in  June — 
an  exception  to  the  autumn-fruiting  of  all  other  birches. 

The  Cherry  Birch 

B.  lenta,  Linn. 

The  cherry  birch  has  dark,  irregularly  checked  bark  like 
the  wild  cherry,  but  the  oval,  pointed  leaf,  the  catkin 
flowers,  and  the  cone  fruits  of  its  family.  Birch  beer  is 
made  of  its  aromatic  sap  and  wintergreen  oil  is  extracted 
from  the  leaves.  Indians  shred  the  inner  bark  and  dry  it  in 
the  spring  when  it  is  rich  in  starch  and  sugar.  These 
shreds,  like  vermicelli,  are  boiled  with  fish  and  form  a 
nourishing  dish.  The  wood  is  heavy,  hard,  and  close- 
grained,  valuable  for  the  manufacture  of  furniture  and 
implements,  especially  wheel  hubs,  and  for  fuel.  It  is 
one  of  the  handsomest,  most  symmetrical,  and  most  lux- 


THE  ALDERS  91 

uriant  of  all  our  birch  trees,  and  a  worthy  addition  to  any 
park. 

THE   ALDERS 

Closely  related  to  the  hornbeams  and  birches  is  a  genus 
of  small  water-loving  trees  that  grow  rapidly  and  serve 
definite,  special  uses  in  the  Old  and  New  World.  The 
genus  alnus  includes  tw^enty  species,  nine  of  which  grow  in 
North  America;  six  of  these  reach  the  height  of  trees. 

The  Black  Alder 

Alnus  glutinosa,  Gaertn. 

Of  the  alders,  the  black  alders  of  Europe  is  the  largest 
and  most  important  timber  tree.  Its  range  includes  west- 
ern Asia  and  northern  xlfrica.  It  was  introduced  success- 
fully into  our  Northeastern  states  in  colonial  times  and  has 
become  naturalized  in  many  localities.  These  trees  some- 
times reach  seventy  feet  in  height  and  a  trunk  diameter 
of  three  feet.  Their  dark  green  foliage,  glutinous  when 
the  leaves  unfold  in  the  spring,  ranks  these  giant  alders 
among  the  beautiful  and  picturesque  trees. 

The  lumberman  esteems  alder  wood  only  for  special 
purposes.  It  grows  in  w^ater  and  its  wood  resists  decay  bet- 
ter than  any  other  kind  when  saturated  through  indefinite 
periods.  In  the  old  days  it  was  the  wood  for  the  boat- 
builder.  The  i)iles  of  the  Rialto  in  Venice  and  along  the 
canals  of  Amsterdam  and  other  Dutch  cities  are  of  black 
alder.  Water  pipes  and  troughs,  pumps,  barrel  staves, 
kneading  troughs,  sabots  and  clogs  were  made  of  alder 
wood.     The  bark  and  cones  are  rich  in  tannin  and  a  vellow 


92  TPtEES 

dye  used  in  making  inlv.  Willow  and  alder  make  the  best 
charcoal  for  gunpowder.  Warty  excrescences  on  old 
trees  and  twisted  roots  furnished  the  inlayer  with  small 
but  beautifully  veined  and  very  hard  pieces,  beautiful 
in  veneer  work  when  polished.  In  America  the  black 
alder  is  often  met  in  horticultural  varieties.  The  daintiest 
are  the  cut-leaved  forms,  of  which  imperialism  with  leaves 
fingered  like  a  white  oak,  is  a  good  example. 

One  of  the  best  uses  to  which  alders  are  put  in  Europe 
is  planting  in  hedges  along  borders  of  streams,  where  their 
closely  interlacing  roots  hold  the  banks  from  crumbling 
and  keep  the  current  clear  in  midstream.  No  English 
landscape  is  more  beautiful  than  one  through  which  a  little 
river  winds,  its  banks  and  the  boggy  spots  tributary  to  it 
softened  by  billows  of  living  green.  "He  who  would  see 
the  alder  in  perfection  must  follow  the  banks  of  the  Mole 
and  Surrey  through  the  sweet  vales  of  Dorking  and  Wickle- 
ham." 

Seaside  Alder 

A.  maritima,  Nutt. 

The  seaside  alder  shares  with  the  witch  hazel  the  pe- 
culiar distinction  of  bearing  its  flowers  and  ripening  its 
fruit  simultaneously  in  the  fall  of  the  year.  The  alder 
comes  first,  hanging  out  its  golden  catkins  in  clusters  on 
the  ends  of  the  season's  shoots  in  August  and  September. 
Nothing  is  left  of  them  when  the  witch  hazel  scatters  its 
dainty  stars  along  the  twigs  in  October  and  November. 
The  seaside  alder  follows  stream  borders  near  but  not 
actually  on  the  seacoast,  through  eastern  Delaware  and 
Maryland,  but  ranges  comfortably  on  drier  soil  as  far  west 
as  Oklahoma  and  is  hardy  in  gardens  and  parks  as  far 


THE  SYCAMORES  93 

north  as  Boston,  where  it  blooms  profusely  and  is  much 
admired  for  both  flowers  and  glossy  foliage  through  the 
late  summer. 

Oregon  Alder 

A.  Oregona,  Nutt. 

The  Oregon  or  red  alder  reaches  eighty  feet  in  height  and 
its  trunk  may  exceed  three  feet  in  diameter.  This  Western 
tree  exceeds  the  Old  World  alder  in  size.  The  smooth, 
pale-gray  bark  reminds  us  of  the  beech  and  sets  this  tree 
apart  from  the  white  alder  whose  bark  is  brown  and  deeply 
furrowed.  The  flowers  and  cone  fruits  are  very  large. 
The  ovate  leaves  are  cut-toothed  and  often  lobed.  This  is 
the  alder  of  the  West  Coast,  largest  where  it  comes  down 
to  the  sea  near  the  shores  of  Puget  Sound,  but  climbing  the 
mountains  and  canyon  sides  wherever  there  is  water,  from 
Sitka  to  Santa  Barbara.  The  reddish  brown  wood  is 
light,  easily  worked,  and  beautifully  satiny  when  polished. 
In  Washington  and  Oregon  it  is  largely  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  furniture.  The  Indian  dug-outs  are  made  of  the 
butts  of  large  trees. 


THE  SYCAINIORES,  OR  BUTTOmVOOD? 

The  Button  wood 

Platanus  occidentallsy  Linn. 

Our  eastern  buttonwood  is  a  tree  to  which,  m  America, 
we  supply  the  name  sycamore.  Its  EuDopoan  counter- 
part is  the  plane  tree  of  the  Old  World.  It  is  one  of  the 
easiest  trees  to  recognize,  for  its  most  prominent  trait  Ls 


94  TREES 

fairly  shouted  at  us  from  a  distance,  whenever  one  of  these 
trees  comes  within  the  range  of  our  vision.  The  smooth 
bark  that  covers  the  branches  is  thin,  very  brittle,  and  has 
the  habit  of  flaking  off  in  irregular  plates,  leaving  white 
patches  under  these  plates  that  contrast  sharply  with  the 
dingy  olive  of  the  unshed  areas.  On  old  trunks  the  bark  is 
reddish  brown  and  breaks  into  small,  irregular  plates;  but 
above,  and  out  among  the  branches,  the  tree  looks  doT\Ti- 
right  untidy,  and  as  though  it  had  been  splashed  with 
whitewash  by  some  careless  painter.  (See  illustrations, 
pages  102-103.) 

White  birches  grow  in  copses  in  low  ground,  a  whole 
regiment  of  their  white  stems  slanting  upward.  But  the 
ghostly  sycamore  is  apt  to  stand  alone  along  the  river- 
courses,  scattered  among  other  water-loving  trees.  The 
tree  is  wayward  in  its  branching  habit,  its  twigs  irregular 
and  angular.  When  the  leaves  are  gone,  it  is  a  distressed- 
looking  object,  dangling  its  seed-balls  in  the  wind  until  the 
central,  bony  cob  is  bare,  the  seeds  having  all  sailed  away 
on  their  hairy  parachutes. 

In  the  warmer  South  our  buttonwood  is  a  stalwart, 
large-limbed  tree  of  colossal  trunk,  that  shelters  oaks  and 
maples  under  its  protecting  arms.  And  there  are  some 
large  specimens  on  Long  Island. 

The  buttonwood  leaf  in  a  general  way  resembles  a  maple's, 
being  as  broad  as  long,  with  three  main  lobes  at  the  top. 
The  leaf  stem  forms  a  tent  over  the  bud  formed  in  summer 
and  containing  the  leafy  shoot  of  the  next  year.  The  leaf 
scar,  therefore,  is  a  circle  and  the  leaf  base  a  hollow 
cone.  At  first  a  sheathing  stipule,  like  a  little  leafy 
ruffle,  grows  at  the  base  of  each  leaf,  but  this  is  shed 
before  midsummer. 


THE  GUINI  TREES  95 

Oriental  Plane 
P.  Orientalis,  Linn. 

The  oriental  plane  is  almost  as  familiar  a  tree  as  our 
native  species,  for  it  is  planted  as  a  street  tree  in  every  city 
and  village,  and  is  a  favorite  shade  and  lawn  tree  besides. 
The  city  of  Washington  has  set  the  example  and  so  has 
Philadelphia.  One  third  of  the  street  trees  of  Paris  are 
plane  trees. 

The  chief  merits  of  this  tree  immigrant  are  its  perfect 
hardiness,  its  fine,  symmetrical,  compact  pyramid,  its 
freedom  from  injury  by  smoke  and  dust,  and  its  rapid 
growth  in  the  poor  soil  of  the  parkings  of  city  and  village. 
In  leaf  and  fruit  and  bark-shedding  habit,  it  is  easily 
recognized  as  a  sycamore,  though  in  this  species  more  than 
one  ball  dangles  from  each  stem. 

The  exactions  of  city  life  limit  the  number  of  tree  species 
that  will  do  well.  Our  native  sycamore  patiently  endures 
the  foul  breath  of  factory  chimneys,  and  helps,  in  the  small- 
est, downtown  city  parks,  to  make  green  oases  in 
burning  deserts  of  brick  and  stone  pavements.  But  it  is 
subject  to  the  ravages  of  insect  and  fungous  enemies  to  a 
greater  extent  than  the  oriental  species. 


THE   GUM   TREES 

Southern  people  talk  more  about  "gum  trees"  than 
people  in  the  North.  Two  of  our  three  native  species  of 
Nyssa  belong  solely  to  southern  swamps,  and  the  third, 
which  comes  north  to  Canada,  is  of  toner  called  bv  other 


96  TREES 

names.  All  these  trees  are  picturesque,  with  twigg;^^  con- 
torted branches;  tough,  cross-grained  wood;  alternate, 
simple,  leathery,  but  deciduous  leaves,  beautiful  at  all 
seasons;  minute  flowers  and  fleshy,  berry-like  fruits. 

The  Sour,  or  Black,  Gum 

Nyssa  sylvatica.  Marsh. 

The  sour  or  black  gum  of  the  South  has  a  wide  range, 
being  hardy  to  southern  Ontario  and  Maine.  To  the  New 
Englander  this  is  the  "pepperidge";  the  Indians  called 
it  "tupelo";  but  the  woodsman.  North  and  South,  calls  it 
the  gum  tree,  as  a  rule.  "Black  gum"  refers  to  its  dark 
gray,  rough  bark,  which  is  broken  into  many-sided  plates. 
By  this,  it  is  easily  distinguished  from  the  "red  gum" 
or  liquidamber,  which  grows  in  the  same  situations,  but  is 
not  related  to  it.  ' '  Sour  gum ' '  refers  to  the  acid,  blue-black 
berries,  one  to  three  in  a  cluster,  ripe  in  October. 

We  shall  know  this  tree  by  its  tall,  slender  trunk,  clothed 
with  short,  ridged,  full-twigged,  horizontal  branches.  With 
no  claim  to  symmetry,  the  black  gum  is  a  striking  and 
picturesque  figure  in  winter.  It  is  beautiful  in  summer, 
covered  with  the  dark  polished  leaves,  two  to  four 
inches  long.  In  autumn  patches  of  red  appear  as  the 
leaves  begin  to  drop.  This  is  the  tupelo's  signal  that 
winter  is  coming.  Soon  the  tree  is  a  pillar  of  fire  against 
yellowing  ashes  and  hickories.  The  reds  of  the  swamp 
maple  and  scarlet  oak  are  brighter,  but  no  tree  has  a  richer 
color  than  this  one.  A  spray  brought  in  to  decorate  the 
mantelpiece  lasts  till  Christmas  holly  displaces  it.  The 
leaves,  being  leathery,  do  not  curl  and  dry,  as  do  thin 
maple  leaves,  in  the  warm  air  of  the  house. 


THE  GUM  TREES  97 

The  Cotton  Gum 

A^.  aquaticay  Marsh. 

The  cotton  gum  is  draped  in  cottony  white  down  as  the 
new  shoots  start  and  the  leaves  unfold  in  spring.  In  mid- 
summer this  down  persists  in  the  leaf-linings,  lightening  the 
dark  green  of  the  tree-tops.  The  dark  blue  fruits  of  this 
species  have  no  culinary  value.  The  wood  is  used  for 
crating  material.  The  tree  reaches  its  maximum  height — 
one  hundred  feet — in  the  cypress  swamps  of  Louisiana 
and  Texas,  its  abundant,  corky  roots  adapting  it  to  its 
habitat. 

The  Sweet  Gum 

Liquidamher  styracifliia,  Linn. 

The  sweet  gum  is  a  tall  tree  with  a  straight  trunk,  four  to 
five  feet  in  diameter,  with  slender  branches  covered  with 
corky  bark  thrown  out  in  wing-like  ridges.  At  first  the 
head  is  regular  and  pyramidal,  but  in  old  age  it  becomes 
irregularly  oblong  and  comparatively  narrow.  The  bark 
is  reddish  brown,  deeply  furrowed  between  rough  scaly 
plates,  marked  by  hard,  warty  excrescences. 

The  leaves  are  lobed  like  a  maple's,  but  more  regularly, 
so  as  to  form  a  five-pointed  star.  Brilliant  green  in  sum- 
mer, they  become  streaked  with  crimson  and  yellow. 
Wherever  these  gum  trees  grow,  the  autumn  landscape  is 
painted  with  the  changeful  splendor  of  the  most  gorgeous 
sunset.  "The  tree  is  not  a  flame,  it  is  a  conflagration!^^ 
Often  along  a  country  road  the  rail  fence  is  hidden  by  an 
undergrowth  of  young  gum  trees.     Their  polished  star 


98  TREES 

leaves  may  pass  from  green  into  dull  crimsons  and  then  into 
lilacs  and  so  to  brown,  or  they  may  flame  into  scarlets  and 
orange  instead.  Always,  the  foHage  of  the  sweet  gum  falls 
before  it  loses  its  wonderful  colors. 

The  flowers  of  the  sweet  gum  are  knobby  little  bunches; 
the  swinging  balls  covered  with  curving  horns  contain 
the  winged  seeds,  small  but  shaped  like  the  key  of  the 
maple.  One  recognizes  the  gum  tree  in  winter  by  these 
swinging  seed-balls,  an  inch  in  diameter,  like  the  balls  of  the 
buttonwood,  except  that  those  are  smooth.  (See  illustra- 
tions, pages  102-103.)  The  best  distinguishing  mark  of  sweet 
gums  in  winter  are  the  corky  ridges  on  the  branches,  and 
the  star-shaped  leaves  under  the  trees.  Sweet  gum  sap  is 
resinous  and  fragrant.  Chip  through  the  bark,  and  an 
aromatic  gum  soon  accumulates  in  the  wound.  The  far- 
ther South  one  goes,  the  more  copious  is  the  exudation.  In 
Mexico  a  Spanish  explorer  described,  in  1651,  "large  trees 
that  exude  a  gum  like  liquid  amber."  This  is  the  " copalm 
balm"  gathered  and  shipped  each  year  to  Europe  from 
New  Orleans  and  from  Mexican  ports.  The  fragrant 
gum,  storax  or  styrax,  derived  from  forests  of  the  oriental 
sweet  gum  in  Asia  Minor,  is  used  as  incense  in  temples  of 
various  oriental  religions.  It  blends  with  frankincense  and 
myrrh  in  the  censers  of  Greek  and  Roman  Catholic 
churches.  It  is  used  in  medicines  also,  and  as  a  dry  gum 
is  the  standard  glove  perfume  in  France. 

Beautiful  and  interesting  in  every  stage  of  growth,  our 
native  sweet  gums  are  planted  largely  in  the  parks  of 
Europe  and  are  earning  recognition  at  home,  through  the 
efforts  of  tree-lovers  who  would  make  the  most  of  native 
species  in  ornamental  planting. 

The  name,  gum  tree,  is  applied  to  our  tupelos,  and  to  the 


THE  OSAGE  ORANGE  99 

great  tribe  of  Australian  eucalyptus  trees,  now  largely 
planted  in  the  Southwest. 

The  Osage  Orange 

Toxylon  pomiferum.  Raff. 

Related  to  figs  and  mulberries,  but  solitary  in  the  genus 
toxylon,  is  the  osage  orange,  a  handsome  round-headed 
tree,  native  of  eastern  North  America,  whose  fleshy  roots 
and  milky,  bitter,  rubbery  sap  reveal  its  family  connec- 
tions with  the  tropical  rubber  plants.  (See  illustration, 
page  119.)  The  fruits  are  great  yellow-green  globes,  four  to 
five  inches  in  diameter,  covered  on  the  outside  by  crowded, 
one-seeded  berries.  This  compound  fruit  reveals  the  tree's 
relationship  to  both  figs  and  mulberries. 

The  aborigines,  especially  of  the  Osage  tribe,  in  the 
middle  Mississippi  Valley,  cherished  these  trees  for  their 
orange-yellow  wood,  which  is  hard,  heavy,  flexible,  and 
strong — the  best  bow-wood  to  be  found  east  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  When  the  settlers  came  the  sharp  thorns 
with  which  the  branches  are  effectually  armed  appealed 
strongly  to  the  busy  farmers  and  the  tree  was  widely 
planted  for  hedges.  Nurserymen  produced  them  by 
thousands,  from  cuttings  of  root  and  branch.  These  trees 
made  rapid  growth  and  seemed  most  promising  as  a  solu- 
tion of  the  fencing  problem,  but  they  did  not  prove  hardy 
in  Iowa  and  neighboring  states.  Even  now  remnants  of 
those  old  winter-killed  hedges  may  be  found  on  farm 
boundaries,  individual  trees  having  been  able  to  survive. 

The  native  osage  orange  timber  is  about  all  gone,  for  the 
rich  bottom  lands  where  it  once  grew  most  abundantly  in 
Oklahoma  and  Texas  have  been  converted  into  farm  land. 


100  TREES 

However,  the  growing  of  osage  orange  timber  for  posts  is 
on  the  increase.  Systematically  maintained,  plantations 
pay  well.  The  wood  is  exceptionally  durable  in  soil. 
Good  prices  are  paid  for  posts  in  local  markets.  Twenty- 
five  posts  can  be  grown  to  the  rod  in  rows  of  a  plantation ; 
they  grow  rapidly  and  send  up  new  shoots  from  the  roots. 

The  brilliant,  leathery  leaves  and  conspicuous  green 
fruits  make  this  native  bow-wood  a  very  striking  lawn 
tree.  It  holds  its  foliage  well  into  the  autumn  and  turns  at 
length  into  a  mass  of  gold.  It  harbors  few  insects,  lias 
handsome  bark,  and  is  altogether  a  distinguished,  foreign- 
looking  tree. 

Experiments  of  feeding  osage  orange  leaves  to  silkworms 
have  been  successfully  made  at  different  times,  but  no- 
where in  America  has  silk  culture  succeeded.  Since  the 
white  mulberry  is  hardy  here  and  its  foliage  is  the  basis  of 
the  silk-growing  industry  in  the  Old  World,  it  is  futile  to 
look  lor  substitutes  in  the  osage  orange  or  any  other  tree. 


PART  IV 

TREES  WITH  SHOWY  FLOWERS  AND  FRUITS 

The  Magnolias — The  Dogwoods — The  Viburnums 
The  Mountain  Ashes — The  Rhododendron — The 
Mountain  Laurel — The  ]\L\drona — The  Sorrel 
Tree — The  Silver  Bell  Trees — The  Sweet  Leaf 
— ^The  Fringe  Tree — The  Laurel  Family — The 
Witch  Hazel — The  Burning  Bush — The  Sumachs 
— The  Smoke  Tree — The  Hollies 

THE  IVIAGNOLIAS 

Four  of  the  ten  genera  in  the  magnoHa  family  are  repre- 
sented in  North  America.  Of  these,  two  are  trees.  All 
are  known  by  their  large,  simple,  alternate  leaves,  with 
margins  entire;  their  showy,  solitary,  terminal  flowers, 
perfect  and  with  all  parts  distinct;  and  their  cone- 
like fruits,  compounded  of  many  one-  or  two-seeded 
follicles,  shingling  over  each  other  upon  a  central  spike. 
The  wood  is  soft  and  light  throughout  the  family,  and  the 
roots  are  fleshy.  The  sap  is  watery  and  the  bark  is  bitter 
and  aromatic. 

The  genus  magnolia,  named  by  Linnaeus  in  honor  of 
Pierre  Magnol,  a  French  botanist,  includes  twenty  species; 
twelve  are  native  to  eastern  and  southern  Asia,  two  to 
Mexico,  and  six  to  eastern  North  America.     They  are  of 

101 


102  TREES 

peculiar  interest  to  horticulturists  and  to  the  general  pub- 
lic, because  they  have  the  largest  flowers  of  any  trees  in 
cultivation.  A  white  blossom  from  six  inches  to  a  foot 
across  is  bound  to  attract  attention  and  admiration  when 
set  off  by  a  whorl  of  lustrous  evergreen  leaves.  The  petals 
of  most  magnolia  blossoms  are  notably  thick  and  waxy  in 
texture  and  deliciously  fragrant.  Last  but  not  least 
are  the  cone-like  fruits,  which  flush  from  pale  green  to  rose 
as  they  ripen  against  the  dark,  leathery  fohage;  at  maturity 
their  follicles  open  in  a  peculiar  fashion  and  hang  out  their 
bright  red  seeds  on  slender  elastic  threads.  Foliage, 
flowers,  or  cones  alone  would  make  magnolias  superb  as 
ornamental  trees.  All  these  qualities  combined  have 
given  them  a  preeminent  place  in  every  country  where 
ornamental  planting  is  done.  North  America  is  fortunate 
in  having  so  large  a  number  of  species  that  assume  tree 


form. 


When  you  see  a  magnolia  in  the  North  blossoming  be- 
fore the  leaves,  you  may  be  sure  it  is  an  exotic  species,  and 
if  the  flowers  are  colored  you  may  be  equally  sure  that  it  is 
a  hybrid  between  two  oriental  species,  and  belongs  to  the 
group  of  which  the  type  is  M,  Soulangeana.  The  owner 
may  be  a  magnolia  enthusiast,  able  to  show  you  on  his 
premises  both  parents  of  this  interesting  and  beautiful 
hybrid. 

Yulan  Magnolia 

Magnolia  Yulan 

The  Yulan  magnolia,  for  centuries  a  favorite  in  Japanese 
gardens,  covers  itself  before  the  leaves  appear  with  pure 
white,  fragrant  flowers,  bell-shaped  and  fully  six  inches 
across.     In  our  Eastern  gardens  it  is  quite  as  much  at 


THE    TATri;Ki;i),    SILlvV     HAKK    OF     illi;    IUH(  IIKS 


BLOTCHED    BARK    OF    THE    SYaAJVIORE,  AND    THE    SEED- 
BALLS  THAT   HANG  ON  ALL  WINTER 


THE  WARTY,  KlD(ilOI)  BARK,  THE  SWINGING  SEED- 
BALLS,  AND  THE  WINGED  SEEDS  OF  THE  SWEET  (JUM 


Sc^  page  109 


TULIP   TREE,    FLOWER    AND    LEAVES 


THE  MAGNOLIAS  103 

home,  and  though  young  trees  are  oftenest  seen,  the  older 
specimens  are  as  large  as  any  native  magnoha.  This  is  one 
parent.  The  other  is  but  a  shrub,  the  purple  magnolia, 
M.  ohovata,  that  must  be  protected  against  the  rigors  of  our 
Northern  winters.  It  blooms  in  May  or  June,  and  its 
purple  flowers,  with  rosy  linings,  are  relatively  small  and  al- 
most scentless.  The  children  of  this  parentage  get  their 
tints  of  pink  and  rose  and  crimson  from  this  purple  mag- 
nolia shrub. 

Splendid,  hardy,  fragrant,  big-flowered  varieties  have 
arisen  from  this  cross.  All  are  small  trees,  suitable  for 
planting  in  city  yards,  where  they  are  decorative  through- 
out the  season. 

Starry  Magnolia 

M.  stellata 

The  starry  magnolia  blooms  in  March  or  April,  covering 
itself  with  star-shaped  white  flowers  made  of  strap-like 
petals  that  form  a  flat  whorl  instead  of  a  cup.  This  is  the 
earhest  magnoha  and  wonderfully  precocious,  blooming 
when  scarcely  two  feet  high. 

The  Southern  states  can  grow  the  splendid  Campbell's 
magnolia,  which  is  in  its  glory  in  the  high  mountam 
valleys  of  the  Himalayas,  where  it  reaches  one  hundred  feet 
in  height.  The  fragrant  flower-cups,  from  sLx  to  ten 
inches  in  diameter,  shade  from  pink  to  crimson.  It  is  rare 
in  cultivation  because  it  is  not  easy  to  grow,  and  northern 
horticulturists  fail  utterly  to  grow  it  outdoors;  but  the  fact 
that  it  is  the  most  beautiful  of  all  exotic  species  must  en- 
courage its  culture  in  the  South,  and  diflSculties  will  be  over- 
come when  the  tree's  pecuhar  needs  are  fully  understood. 


104  TREES 

The  Great  Laurel  Magnolia 

M.  foetida,  Sarg. 

The  great  laurel  magnolia  is  oftenest  seen  in  cultivation 
as  a  small  tree  of  pyramidal  or  conical  habit,  with  stiff, 
ascending  branches,  bearing  a  lustrous  mass  of  leathery 
oval  leaves,  five  to  eight  inches  long,  lined  with  dull  green, 
or  with  rusty  down,  persistent  until  the  second  spring. 
When  small  these  magnolia  trees  are  as  conventional  as  the 
rubber  plants  in  hotel  lobbies,  whose  foliage  resembles 
theirs.  But  in  the  forests  of  Louisiana,  where  this  tree 
reaches  its  greatest  perfection,  it  earns  the  characterization 
that  Sargent  gave  it,  "the  most  splendid  ornamental  tree 
in  the  American  forests."  With  a  trunk  four  feet  thick, 
and  its  head  lifted  from  fifty  to  eighty  feet  above  the 
ground  and  with  each  leaf  cluster  holding  up  a  great  white 
flower,  waxy  as  a  camellia,  seven  to  eight  inches  across,  the 
tree  is  indeed  superb.  William  Bartram  likened  these 
flowers  to  great  white  roses,  distinctly  visible  from  a  dis- 
tance of  a  mile. 

The  purple  heart  of  the  flower,  made  by  a  spot  of  color 
at  the  base  of  each  petal,  and  the  overpowering  odor,  rather 
sickening  as  the  flowers  fade,  lure  insects  to  the  nectar 
store  at  the  bottom  of  the  flower-cup.  This  odor,  dis- 
agreeable to  many  people,  is  the  one  objection  to  this 
flower  when  brought  indoors.  A  drawback  that  florists 
discover  is  that  the  sHghtest  bruise  of  the  waxy  petals 
produces  a  brownish  discoloratiouj,  which  prevents  the 
shipment  of  these  flowers.  The  splendid  foliage,  however, 
travels  perfectly,  and  a  new  and  growing  industry  is  the 
gathering  of  magnolia  branches  il!i  Southern  woods  for 


THE  MAGNOLIAS  105 

Christmas  decoration.  These  branches  are  offered  in  all 
Northern  cities,  and  this  demand  threatens  the  extinction 
of  the  tree,  which  until  comparatively  recent  years  has  en- 
joyed immunity  because  of  the  worthlessness  of  its  soft 
wood. 

The  tree's  natural  range  is  from  the  North  Carolina 
coast  to  Tampa  Bay,  and  west  along  the  Gulf  Coast  to 
Texas  and  southern  Arkansas.  As  an  ornamental  tree,  it 
is  safely  planted  in  Philadelphia,  but  its  life  is  precarious 
farther  north.  It  is  widely  grown  in  southern  California 
as  a  street  tree,  notably  in  Pasadena  and  in  parks  and 
gardens  for  its  blossoms,  foliage,  and  fuzzy,  horny  cones. 


The  Swamp  Bay 

M.  glauca,  Linn. 

The  swamp  bay  has  lustrous,  bright  green  leaves  with 
silvery  linings.  In  Florida  and  across  to  Texas  and  Arkan- 
sas it  grows  into  a  superb  evergreen  tree,  fifty  to  seventy- 
five  feet  in  height.  Northward  along  the  Atlantic  Coast  its 
growth  is  stunted  as  the  climate  becomes  more  rigorous, 
until  it  reaches  Massachusetts  and  Long  Island,  w^here  it 
becomes  a  many-stemmed  shrub,  w^hose  beautiful  leaves 
fall  in  the  autumn.  On  the  streets  of  cities  near  the  New 
Jersey  swamps  the  flowers  of  the  swamp  bay  are  offered  for 
sale  in  May.  The  buds  are  almost  globular,  and  each  one 
is  surrounded  by  a  cluster  of  new  leaves.  To  spring  back 
these  waxy  white  petals,  that  are  marred  by  a  touch,  is 
criminal;  but  it  is  the  common  practice  with  boys  w^ho 
hawk  these  flowers  on  the  streets.  ]\Iost  of  the  charm  is 
gone  from  flowers  thus  defiled  by  dingy  fingers. 


106  TREES 

The  finest  flowers  are  borne  on  strong  young  shoots. 
The  florists  collect  and  handle  them  with  extreme  care. 
Much  of  the  swamp  land  now  useless  along  the  Atlantic 
seaboard  could  be  profitably  planted  to  this  magnoHa,  for 
the  florist  trade  alone.  The  flowers  bloom  slowly  through 
a  period  of  several  weeks.  The  enterprising  owner  of  tracts 
planted  to  swamp  bay  could  reap  two  harvests  a  year,  al- 
most from  the  first  season:  the  flowers  in  spring  and  the 
leafy  shoots  for  holiday  decorations.  In  the  South  the 
leaves  are  evergreen. 

The  Large-leaved  Cucumber  Tree 

M.  macrophylla,  Michx. 

The  large-leaved  cucumber  tree  exceeds  all  other  magno- 
lias in  the  size  of  its  leaves  and  flowers.  In  fact,  no  tree  out- 
side the  tropics  can  match  it,  for  its  blades  are  almost  a  yard 
in  length.  The  flowers  are  great  white  bowls,  sometimes  a 
foot  across,  made  of  six  white  waxy  petals,  much  broader 
than  the  three  protecting  sepals  outside.  The  inner  petals 
have  purple  spots  at  the  base.  The  fruits  are  almost 
globular,  two  to  three  inches  long,  turning  red  as  they 
mature,  equally  showy  when  the  scarlet  seeds  dangle  from 
the  open  follicles. 

These  trees  are  at  home  in  fertile  valleys  among  the  foot- 
hills of  the  Alleghanies,  from  North  Carolina  to  middle 
Florida,  and  west  to  central  Arkansas.  Their  range  is  not 
continuous.  They  occur  in  scattered  groups  that  have 
come  from  seed. 

The  horticulturist  has  greatly  aided  nature  in  the  spread 
of  this  tree  in  this  country  and  in  Europe,  where  its  flowers 
and   leaves   attract   universal   attention.     The   mistake 


THE  MAGNOLLiS  107 

usually  made  is  to  plant  it  in  the  middle  of  a  lawn  where 
the  wind  lashes  the  broad  leaves  into  ribbons  before  they 
have  reached  their  full  size.  Every  twig  or  leaf  that 
touches  a  petal  mars  it  witli  a  brown  bruise.  The  only 
way  to  enjoy  one  of  these  remarkable  trees  is  to  plant  it  in 
the  most  sheltered  situation,  where  the  sunshine  will  reach 
it  and  the  breezes  will  not.  Then  the  silver-hned  foliage 
and  the  superb  white  blossoms  can  come  to  perfection  and 
the  sight  is  worth  going  miles  to  see. 

The  Cucumber  Tree 

M.  acuminata,  Linn. 

The  cucumber  tree  is  the  hardiest  of  our  native  magnolias, 
tropical-looking  by  reason  of  its  heart-shaped  leaves,  six  to 
ten  inches  long.  Its  chosen  habitat  is  rocky  uplands, 
where  the  fleshy  roots  can  find  moist  soil.  It  ranges  from 
western  New  York  to  Illinois,  Kentucky,  and  Arkansas, 
and  follows  the  mountain  foothills  through  Pennsylvania 
and  Tennessee  into  Alabama  and  Mississippi. 

The  flowers  are  Hke  tulips,  and  though  large  can  scarcely 
be  seen  amxong  the  new  leaves,  because  they  are  all  yellow- 
ish green  in  color.  The  petals  are  leaf-like  and  the  flowers 
have  no  fragrance  to  make  up  for  their  lack  of  beauty. 
Imperfect  pollination  results  in  distorted,  fleshy  cones 
that  resemble  cucumbers  that  have  twisted  and  shrunken 
in  spots  as  they  grew.  These  fruits  turn  from  pink  to  red 
as  they  mature,  redeeming  their  ugly  shape  by  their  vivid 
color  as  the  leaves  turn  yellow.  In  September,  the  scarlet 
seeds  hang  out  and  the  wind  whips  them  until  they  dangle 
several  inches  below  the  fruit.  One  by  one  they  drop  and 
new  cucumber  trees  come  up  from  this  planting. 


108  TREES 

The  wood  of  the  cucumber  tree  is  light,  close-textured, 
weak,  and  pale  brown  in  color.  It  has  only  local  use  in 
cabinet-making  and  for  flooring.  The  tree  is  far  more  val- 
uable in  horticulture.  It  is  a  splendid  stock  on  which  to 
graft  less  hardy  magnolias.  It  is  a  superb  avenue  and 
shade  tree  for  Northern  cities,  and  in  this  capacity  it  is  as 
yet  httle  known.  It  grows  vigorously  from  seed,  and 
stands  transplanting,  if  care  is  used  that  the  brittle  roots 
are  not  mutilated  nor  dried. 


The  Umbrella  Tree 

M,  tripetala,  Linn. 

The  umbrella  tree  has  an  umbrella-like  whorl  of  leaves 
surrounding  the  flower  whose  white  cup  stands  above 
three  recurving  white  sepals.  The  whole  tree  .suggests  an 
umbrella,  so  closely  thatched  is  its  dome  of  thin,  bright 
green  leaves. 

The  stout  contorted  branches  and  twigs  lack  sjonmetry, 
from  the  forking  habit.  Side  twigs  strike  out  at  right 
angles  from  an  erect  branch,  then  turn  up  into  a  position 
parallel  with  the  parent  branch,  and  bear  terminal  flowers, 
which  induce  another  branching  system  the  following  year. 
Despite  its  angularity  this  is  the  trimmest  and  one  of  the 
handsomest  of  our  native  magnolias,  and  it  has  the  merit 
of  hardiness  even  in  New  England,  where  it  attains  large 
size.  Its  native  range  extends  from  Pennsylvania  near  the 
coast,  along  the  Atlantic  seaboard,  and  westward  to 
southern  Alabama  and  Arkansas.  It  loves  swamp  borders 
and  the  banks  of  mountain  streams,  but  behaves  well  in  the 
moderately  rich  soil  of  parks  and  gardens. 


THE  IVIAGNOLIAS  109 

The  Tulip  Tree 

Liriodendron  tulipifera,  Linn. 

The  tulip  tree  is  a  cousin,  rather  than  a  sister,  to  the  fore- 
going magnolias.  It  stands  alone  in  its  genus  in  America, 
but  has  a  sister  species  that  grows  in  the  Chinese  interior. 
A  tall,  stately  forest  tree,  it  reached  two  hundred  feet  in 
height,  and  a  trunk  diameter  of  ten  feet,  in  the  lower  Ohio 
Valley,  when  it  was  covered  with  virgin  forest.  This 
species  still  holds  its  own  as  a  valuable  lumber  tree  on 
mountain  slopes  of  North  Carolina  and  Tennessee. 
Smaller,  but  still  stately  and  beautiful,  it  is  found  in  woods 
from  Vermont  to  Florida  and  west  to  Illinois,  Arkansas, 
and  Mississippi. 

In  Europe  the  tulip  tree  has  been  a  favorite  since  its  dis- 
covery^ and  exportation  by  the  American  colonists.  More 
and  more  it  is  coming  to  be  appreciated  at  home  as  a  la\\Ti 
and  shade  tree,  for  there  is  no  time  in  the  year  when  it  is 
not  full  of  interest  and  beauty,  and  no  time  in  its  life  when 
it  is  not  a  distinct  and  beautiful  addition  to  any  plantation. 

In  the  dead  of  winter  young  tulip  trees  are  singularly 
straight  and  symmetrical  compared  with  saplings  of 
other  trees.  There  is  usually  a  grove  of  them,  planted  by 
some  older  tree  that  towers  overhead,  and  still  holds  up  its 
shiny  cones,  that  take  months  to  give  up  their  winged 
seeds.  The  close,  thick,  intricately  furrowed  bark  of  the 
parent  tree  contrasts  sharply  with  the  smooth  rind  of  its 
branches  and  the  stems  of  the  saplings.  Tulip  trees  are 
trim  as  beeclies  until  the  trunks  are  old. 

The  winter  twigs  are  set  with  oblong  blunt  leaf-buds. 
The  terminal  one  contains  the  flower,  when  the  tree  is  old 


110        (  TREES 

enough  to  bloom.  (See  illustration,  page  103.)  In  spring 
the  terminal  buds  of  samplings  best  show  the  peculiarity  of 
the  tree's  vernation.  Two  green  leaves  mth  palms  to- 
gether form  a  flat  bag  that  encloses  the  new  shoot.  Hold 
this  bag  up  to  the  light  and  you  see,  as  a  shadow  within, 
a  curved  petiole  and  leaf.  The  bag  opens  along  its  edge 
seam,  the  leaf -stem  straightens,  lifting  the  blade  which  is 
folded  on  the  midrib.  At  the  base  of  the  petiole  stands  a 
smaller  flat  green  bag.  As  the  leaf  grows  to  maturity  the 
basal  palms  of  its  protecting  bag  shrivel  and  fail  away, 
leaving  the  ring  scar  around  the  leaf  base. 

Now  the  growing  shoot  has  carried  up  the  second  bag, 
which  opens  and  another  leaf  expands,  sheds  its  leafy 
stipuleSs  and  a  third  follows.  The  studies  of  this  unique 
vernation  delight  children  and  grown-ups.  It  is  absolutely 
unmatched  in  the  world  of  trees. 

The  leathery  blades  of  the  tuHp  tree  are  from  four  to  six 
inches  broad  and  long,  with  basal  lobes,  like  those  of  a 
maple  leaf,  and  the  end  chopped  off  square.  Occasionally 
there  is  a  notch,  made  by  the  two  end  lobes  projecting  a 
trifle  beyond  the  midrib.  The  leaves  are  singularly  free 
from  damage,  keeping  their  dark  lustrous  beauty  through 
the  summer,  and  turning  to  clear  yellow  before  they  fall. 

The  winged  seeds  fall  first  from  the  top  of  the  erect 
cones,  the  wind  whirling  them  far,  because  the  flat  blades 
are  long  and  the  seed-cases  light — many  of  them  empty  in 
fact.  Far  into  winter  a  tulip  tree  seems  to  be  blossoming, 
because  its  bare  branches  are  tipped  with  the  remnants  of 
the  seed  cones,  faded  and  shining  almost  white  against  the 
dark  branches. 

Tulip  wood  is  soft  and  weak,  pale  brown,  and  light  in 
weight.    It  is  easily  worked  and  is  used  locally  for  house- 


TIIE  DOGWOODS  111 

and  boat-building.  Wood  pulp  consumes  much  of  the 
yeai'ly  harvest.  It  is  knowni  as  "poplar,'*  whose  wood  it 
resembles.  Ordinary  postal  cards  are  made  of  it.  The 
bark  yields  a  drug  used  as  a  heart  stimulant. 


THE  DOGVv^OODS 

Foliage  of  exceptional  beauty  is  the  distinguishing  trait 
of  the  trees  in  the  cornel  famil}^  from  the  standpoint  of  the 
landscape  gardener  and  the  lover  of  the  woods.  Showy 
flowers  and  fruit  belong  to  some  of  the  species;  extremely 
hard,  close-textured  wood  belongs  to  all;  and  this  means 
slow  growth,  which  is  a  limitation  in  the  eyes  of  the  planter 
who  wishes  quick  results.  But  he  who  plants  a  cornel  tree 
and  watches  it  season  after  season,  finds  it  one  of  the  most 
interesting  of  nature  studies  through  the  whole  round  of 
the  year. 

The  dogwoods  are  slender-twigged  trees  of  small  size, 
with  simple,  entire  leaves,  strongly  ribbed,  and  with  one 
exception,  set  opposite  upon  the  twigs.  Fifty  species  are 
distributed  over  the  Northern  Hemisphere;  one  crosses  the 
equator  into  Peru.  Four  of  the  seventeen  species  found  in 
the  United  States  are  trees;  the  rest  are  shrubs,  one  of  them 
the  low-growing  bunchberry  of  our  Northern  woods. 

The  Flowering  Dogwood 

Cornus  jlorida,  Linn. 

The  flowering  dogwood  {see  illustration,  pageloJf)is  a  little 
tree  whose  round,  bushy,  flat-topped  head  is  made  of  short, 
horizontal  branches.     The  twigs  hold  erect  in  the  winter 


112  TREES 

a  multitude  of  buds,  large,  squat,  enclosed  in  four  scales, 
like  the  husk  of  a  hickory  nut.  All  the  delicate  tints  that 
the  water-colorist  delights  in  are  found  in  these  buds  and 
the  twigs  that  bear  them.  When  spring  comes,  these 
scales  loosen,  expand,  turn  green,  then  fade  into  pure  white 
— ^forming  the  four  banners,  ordinarily  called  petals — of  the 
bloom  of  the  dogwood.  The  true  flowers  are  small  and 
clustered  in  the  centre.  These  white  expanses  are  merely 
modified  bud  scales,  the  botanist  will  tell  you,  and  the 
notch  at  the  end  is  where  the  horny  winter  scale  broke 
away,  while  its  base  was  growing  into  the  large  white 
palm. 

From  March  till  May  one  finds  the  dogwood  clothed  in 
white  {see  Ulitstration,  page  118)^  and  the  glossy  leaves  pass- 
ing through  changing  hues  from  rose  to  green.  The 
wayward  arrangement  of  the  blossoms  on  the  branch  is  the 
delight  of  artists.  Lured  by  the  white  signals,  bees  and 
other  nectar-loving  insects  come  to  the  flowers,  cross- 
fertilizing  them  while  they  supply  their  own  needs.  In 
midsummer  the  pale  green  clusters  of  berries  replace  the 
flowers,  and  when  in  autumn  the  foliage,  still  glossy  and 
smooth,  changes  to  crimson  and  scarlet,  the  berries  are 
brighter  still,  until  the  birds  have  taken  every  one. 

The  bark  of  the  dogwood  is  checkered  like  alligator  skin 
but  with  deep  furrows  that  make  it  very  rough.  Th« 
wood  is  used  for  wood  engraving  blocks,  for  tool  handlci, 
hubs,  and  cogs.  But  it  is  becoming  very  scarce.  The  de- 
plorable destruction  of  the  dogwoods  comes  not  so  mucli 
from  the  lumberman  as  from  the  irresponsible  people  who 
tear  the  trees  to  pieces  in  blossoming  time.  The  wanton 
mutilation  of  the  dogwoods  in  natural  woodlands  belong- 
ing to  cities  can  be  curbed  only  by  pohcing  the  tracts.    The 


THE  DOGWOODS  113 

saving  of  every  flowering  dogwood  tree  is  a  duty  owed 
to  his  community  by  every  wood-lot  owner  within  the 
range  of  this  hardy,  handsome  tree.  Though  exterminated 
over  much  of  its  range,  it  is  able  and  willing  to  grow  in  any 
state  east  of  the  Mississippi  River.  It  is  one  of  the  most 
deservedly  popular  trees  planted  for  ornament  in  this 
country  and  in  Europe. 

Western  Dogwood 

C.  Nuttallii,  x\ud. 

The  Pacific  Coast  outdoes  the  rest  of  the  country  in 
the  size  of  its  forest  trees.  Superlatives  in  vegetation 
abound  where  the  breath  of  the  Japan  current  tempers  the 
air.  The  Western  dogwood  often  reaches  one  hundred 
feet  in  height  in  the  forests  near  Seattle.  Its  flowers  have 
six,  instead  of  four,  of  the  petal-like,  white  bracts,  each 
narrower  and  pointed,  and  without  the  terminal  notch. 
The  tree  in  blossom  is  more  magnificent  than  the  eastern 
species,  for  the  flowers  are  often  tw^ce  as  large,  and  the 
spectacle  of  one  of  these  trees,  after  the  leaves  turn  to 
scarlet  in  autumn,  and  it  leans  against  the  sombre  ever- 
greens that  cover  the  mountainside,  is  always  startling, 
even  in  a  country  where  surprises  are  the  rule. 

European  Dogwood 

C.  nias. 

The  European  dogwood  or  cornel  is  often  planted  in  the 
Eastern  states  as  an  ornamental  tree,  but  not  for  its 
flowers  alone,  though  these  tiny,  button-like  clusters 
cover  the  bare  branches  in  earliest  spring.     Tlie  showy 


114  TREES 

fruits  look  like  scarlet  olives  hanging  among  the  glossy 
foliage  in  late  summer.  These  fruits  are  edible,  and  in 
Europe  are  used  in  preserves  and  cordials. 


THE  VIBUIINUMS 

The  honeysuckle  family,  which  includes  a  multitude  of 
ornamental  shrubs,  furnishes  two  genera  with  three  repre- 
sentatives. Handsome  foliage,  showy  flowers,  and  at- 
tractive fruits  justify  the  popularity  of  this  family  in 
gardens  and  parks. 

The  viburnums  are  distributed  over  the  Northern 
Hemisphere  and  extend  into  the  tropics.  There  are  about 
one  hundred  species,  including  the  old-fashioned  snowball 
bush,  perhaps  the  best-known  species  in  this  country. 
Discriminating  gardeners  have  replaced  it  by  the  Japanese 
snowball,  because  the  latter  has  much  more  handsome 
foliage  and  perfect  flowers,  instead  of  the  barren  flower 
cluster  that  has  nothing  to  show  for  itself  once  the  bloom 
is  past.  This  new  species  wears  the  autumn  decoration 
of  bright  red  berries  well  into  the  winter. 

The  Sheepberry 

Viburnum  lentago,  Linn. 

In  our  native  woods  the  sheepberry  is  a  small  round- 
headed  tree,  with  shm,  drooping  branches  and  oval  leaves, 
finely  cut-toothed  and  tapering  to  wavy-wiaged  petioles. 
In  autumn  these  leathery  leaves  change  to  orange  and  red, 
their  shiny  surfaces  contrasting  with  the  dull  lining,  pitted 
with  blad£  dots.    The  fruit,  a  loose  cluster  of  dark  blue 


THE  VIBURNUMS  115 

berries,  on  branching  red  stems,  is  an  attractive  color 
contrast,  and  the  birds  flutter  in  the  trees  until  they  have 
eaten  the  last  one.  The  fragrant  white  flowers  light  up 
the  tree  from  April  to  June  with  their  flat  clusters  three 
to  five  inches  across.  The  opposite  arrangement  of  the 
leaves  and  that  short- winged  petiole  identify  the  little 
tree,  whether  it  grows  by  the  swamp  borders,  along  the 
streams,  or  in  parks  and  gardens.  At  any  season  it  is 
good  to  look  upon.  Its  range  covers  the  eastern  half  of 
the  country,  extending  almost  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and 
west  into  Wyoming. 

The   Rusty  Nannyberry 

V.  rufidulum.  Raff. 

The  rusty  nannyberry  is  easily  distinguished  by  the 
rusty  hairs  that  clothe  its  new  shoots  and  the  stems  and 
veins  of  the  leaves.  White  flower  clusters  are  succeeded 
by  bright  blue  berries  of  unusual  size  and  brilliance,  ripe 
in  October,  on  red-stemmed  pedicles.  The  handsome 
pohshed  leaves  are  rounded  at  the  tips.  The  wood  of  this 
little  tree  has  a  very  unpleasant  odor,  but  this  trait  has  no 
bearing  upon  its  merits  as  a  garden  ornament.  It  is 
found  wild  from  Virginia  to  Illinois  and  southward.  In 
cultivation  it  is  hardy  in  the  latitude  of  Boston. 

The  Black  Haw 

V.  prunifolium,  Linn. 

The  black  haw  has  the  characteristic  flowers  and  fruit 
of  its  geniLs,  but  is  smaller  throughout  than  the  other  two, 
and  its  branches  are  stout.     In  Euroi>ean  parks  and  gar- 


116  TREES 

dens  it  is  known  as  the  "stagbush."  Its  fruit  turns  dark 
when  dead  ripe,  and  persists  well  into  the  winter.  In  the 
wilds,  this  little  viburnum  is  found  from  southern  New 
England  to  Michigan,  and  south  to  Georgia  and  Texas. 


THE  MOUNTAIN  ASHES 

The  handsome  foliage  and  showy  flower  clusters  make 
the  mountain  ashes  a  favorite  gi'oup  of  little  trees  for 
border  shrubberies  and  other  ornamental  planting.  The 
foliage  is  almost  fern-like  in  delicacy  and  it  spreads  in  a 
whorl  below  the  flower  clusters  in  spring  and  the  scarlet 
berry  clusters  in  autumn.  Far  into  the  winter  after  the 
foliage  has  dropped  the  berries  persist,  supplying  the  birds 
with  food,  especially  in  snowj^  winters,  when  their  need  is 
greatest,  and  brightening  the  dull  thickets  of  bare  twigs 
on  dreary  days. 

Eastern  Mountain  Ash 

Sorbus  Americana^  Marsh. 

The  common  eastern  mountain  ash  reaches  thirty  feet 
in  height — a  slender,  pyramidal  tree,  with  spreading 
branches  and  delicate  leaves  of  from  thirteen  to  seventeen 
leaflets.  The  flat-topped  cluster  of  creamy  white  flowers 
(see  illustration,  page  135)  appears  in  May  and  June,  above 
the  dark  yellow-green  foliage;  and  the  scarlet  berries,  ripe 
in  September  when  the  leaves  have  turned  yellow,  may 
persist  until  spring.  Along  the  borders  of  swamps  and 
climbing  rocky  bluffs,  often  scattered  in  plum  thickets, 
these  trees  are  handsome  at  any  season.  Along  the 
mountains  of  Tennessee  and  North  Carolina  home  reme- 


THE  MOUNTAIN  ASHES  117 

dies  are  made  out  of  the  berries.  From  Newfoundland 
to  Manitoba  and  southward  the  tree  grows  wild  and  is 
planted  for  ornament  in  home  grounds. 

Elder-leaved  Mountain  Ash 

S.  sambucifolia,  Roem. 

The  elder-leaved  mountain  ash  overlaps  the  first  species, 
and  is  even  more  daring  as  a  climber.  It  ranges  from 
Labrador  to  Alaska,  follows  the  Rocky  Mountains  to 
Colorado,  and  in  the  Eastern  states  goes  no  farther  south 
than  Pennsylvania.  Its  leaves  are  graceful  and  drooping 
like  the  elder.  The  flowers  and  fruits  are  large ;  the  whole 
tree  tropical  looking,  its  open,  pyramidal  head  giving  each 
leaf  a  chance  at  the  sun. 

European  Mountain  Ash 

S,  Aucuparia,  Linn.' 

Most  common  in  cultivation  is  the  European  mountain 
ash  called  in  England  the  rowan  tree.  This  trim  round- 
headed  species  is  very  neat  and  conventional  compared 
with  its  wild  cousins,  but  in  the  craggy  highlands  of  Scot- 
land and  Wales  it  much  resembles  our  mountain  ashes. 

Old  superstitions  cluster  around  the  rowan  tree  in  all 
rural  sections.  These  are  preserved  in  the  folk-lore  and 
the  literature  of  many  countries.  Rowans  were  planted 
by  cottage  doors  and  at  the  gates  of  church  yards,  being 
considered  effectual  in  exorcising  evil  spirits.  Leafy 
twigs  hung  over  the  thresholds,  crosses  made  of  "Roan** 
wood  given  out  on  festival  days,  were  worn  as  charms  or 
amulets.     Milkmaids,    especially,    depended    upon    these 


118  TREES 

for  the  defeat  of  the  "black  elves"  who  constantly  tried 
to  make  their  cows  go  dry,  and  unless  prevented  got  into 
the  churns — and  then  the  butter  would  never  come! 

The  farther  north  a  tree  can  grow,  the  more  likely  it  is 
to  have  close  relatives  in  the  Old  World.  One  mountain 
ash  of  Japan  is  hardly  distinguishable  from  our  western 
species,  and  some  authorities  believe  that  our  two  native 
species  are  but  varieties  of  the  rowan  tree  of  Europe. 


THE  RHODODENDRON 

The  heath  family,  of  about  sixty -seven  genera^  distrib- 
uted over  the  temperate  and  tropical  countries  of  the 
earth,  has  twenty-one  genera  in  the  United  States,  seven 
of  which  have  tree  representatives.  Azaleas,  the  multi- 
tude of  the  heathers,  the  huckleberries,  the  madronas, 
call  to  mind  flower  shows  we  have  seen — under  glass,  in 
gardens,  in  parks,  and  among  mountain  fastnesses  bright- 
ened by  the  loveliness  of  the  mountain  laurel,  azalea,  and 
rhododendroUo  In  this  wonderful  family  the  leaves  are 
simple  and  mostly  evergreen.  Rarely  are  the  fruits 
of  any  importance.  It  is  the  flowers  in  masses  that  give 
the  chief  distinction  to  a  family  with  over  a  thousand 
species,  which  have  been  the  subjects  of  study  and  culti- 
vation through  centuries.  The  type  of  the  family  is  the 
Scotch  heather,  immortalized  in  song  and  story.  In 
London  the  Christmas  season  is  marked  by  the  sale  of 
half  a  million  httle  potted  plants  of  heather!  Each  is 
about  a  foot  in  height  and  bears  a  thousand  tiny  bells, 
rosy,  with  white  lips.  This  is  the  poor  man's  Christmas 
flower.     It  costs  a  shilling  and  lasts  a  month  or  more. 


.SV^-  page  99 


THE   OSAGE   ORANGE 
Flowers  appear  in  June,  after  the  lustrous  leaves 


THE  RHODODENDRON  119 

Trees  axe  scarce  in  the  heath  family.  Shrubs  are  in  the 
majority.  The  azaleas,  which  the  Belgian  gardeners 
have  brought  to  such  perfection  and  developed  in  such  a 
great  number  of  varieties,  are  among  the  best  knowm  of 
the  heaths.  The  profuse  blossoms  in  potted  azaleas 
entirely  extinguish  the  foliage,  and  the  flowers  are  almost 
as  lasting  as  if  they  were  artificial. 

The  genus  rhododendron  in  American  woods  is  repre- 
sented by  a  mountain  shrub  and  a  tree.  Both  are  ever- 
green and  both  are  widely  planted  for  ornament  during 
the  entire  season.  Carloads  of  these  wonderful  plants 
are  shipped  from  the  mountain  slopes  of  the  Alleghanies 
for  mass  planting  on  rocky  ground,  and  to  cover  embank- 
ments along  the  drives  in  great  estates.  Because  of  the 
altitude  of  their  native  habitat,  they  are  hardy  in  New 
England,  and  even  as  far  as  the  Great  Lakes.  In  time  of 
bloom,  these  masses  are  the  great  flower  show  of  the  coun- 
tryside, and  in  winter  nothing  is  more  beautiful  than  the 
evergreen  foliage  of  rhododendrons,  lifted  out  of  the  snow. 

Great  Laurel  or  Rose  Bay 

Rhododendron  maximum ^  Linn. 

Among  the  Alleghany  Mountains,  from  Virginia  south- 
ward, the  great  laurel  rises  to  a  height  of  forty  feet, 
and  interlaces  its  boughs  with  those  of  Eraser's  magnolia 
and  the  mountain  hemlock  in  the  dense  forest  cover. 
Thickets  of  rhododendron  trees  are  common,  and  though 
its  stature  is  reduced,  it  follows  the  highlands  into  New 
York,  and  is  one  of  the  most  striking  and  beautiful  shrubs 
in  the  Pennsylvania  mountains.  Scattered  and  becoming 
more  rare  and  more  stunted,  it  reaches  Lake  Erie  and  on 


no  TREES 

into  New  Brunswick.  The  leaves  crown  each  of  the  stiff 
branches  with  an  umbrella-like  whorl,  that  stands  guard 
in  winter  time  about  a  large  scaly  bud.  In  spring  the 
scales  fall  and  a  cone-like  flower  cluster  rises.  Each 
blossom  is  white,  marked  with  yellow  or  orange  spots,  in 
the  bell-like  corolla's  throat;  or  the  flowers  may  be  pale 
rose,  with  deeper  tones  in  the  unopened  buds.  A  great 
tree  in  blossom,  with  its  flower  clusters  lighting  up  the 
umbrella-like  whorls  of  glossy,  evergreen  leaves,  illumi- 
nates the  woods,  and  makes  every  other  tree  look  common- 
place beside  it. 

In  late  summer,  green  capsules,  each  with  a  curving 
style  at  the  top,  cluster  where  the  flowers  stood,  but  these 
are  scarcely  ornamental.  The  evergreen  leaves  and  the 
buds,  full  of  promise  for  June  blossoming,  are  the  beautiful 
features  of  rhododendrons  in  winter. 

The  wonderful  array  of  color  and  profusion  of  bloom, 
seen  in  an  exhibit  of  rhododendrons  and  azaleas,  is  the 
most  convincing  proof  of  what  crossing  and  careful  selec- 
tion can  do  in  developing  races  of  flowering  plants.  The 
ancestry  of  all  these  tub-plants  is  a  matter  of  record,  and 
goes  back  to  a  few  comparatively  insignificant  wild  species, 
competing  with  all  the  rest  of  the  native  flora  for  a  liveli- 
hood. 

THE  MOUNTAIN  LAUREL 

The  mountain  laurel  (Kalviia  lalifolia,  Linn.)  grows  from 
Nova  Scotia  to  Lake  Erie  and  southward  through  New 
England  and  New  York,  and  along  the  Alleghanies  to 
northern  Georgia.  Hardier  than  the  rhododendrons, 
smaller  in  blossoms  and  in  foliage,  the  laurel  is  in  many 


THE  MADRONA  121 

points  its  superior  in  beauty.  In  June  and  July  the  pol- 
ished evergreen  foliage  of  the  kalmia  bushes  is  almost  over- 
whelmed by  the  masses  of  its  exquisite  pink  blossoms,  be- 
side which  the  bloom  of  rhododendrons  looks  coarse  and 
crude  in  coloring.  Coral-red  fluted  buds  with  pointed 
tips  show  the  richest  color,  making  with  the  yellow-green 
of  the  new  leaves  one  of  the  most  exquisite  color  combina- 
tions in  any  spring  shrubbery.  The  largest  buds  open 
first,  spreading  into  wide  five-lobed  corollas,  with  two 
pockets  in  the  base  of  each  forming  a  circle  of  ten  pockets. 
Ten  stamens  stand  about  the  free  central  pistil,  and  the 
anther  of  each  is  hid  in  a  pocket  of  the  corolla — the  slender 
filament  bent  backward.  This  is  a  curious  contrivance  for 
insuring  cross-fertilization  through  the  help  of  the  bees. 
(See  ^''Flowers  Worth  Knowing.'*^) 

Linnaeus  commemorated  in  the  name  of  this  genus  the 
devoted  and  arduous  labors  of  Peter  Kalm,  the  Swedish 
botanist,  who  sent  back  to  his  master  at  the  university  of 
Upsala  specimens  of  the  wonderful  and  varied  flora  found 
in  his  travels  in  eastern  North  America.  Most  of  the 
names  accredited  to  Linnaeus  were  given  to  plants  he 
never  saw  except  as  dried  herbarium  specimens  from  the 
New  World. 

THE  INIADRONA 

The  madroiia  (Arbutus  Menziesii,  Pursh.),  another  mem- 
ber of  the  Heath  family,  is  one  of  the  superbly  beautiful 
trees  in  the  forests  that  stretch  from  British  Columbia 
soutliward  into  California.  South  of  the  bay  of  San 
Francisco  and  on  the  dry  eajstern  slopes  of  California 
mountains  it  is  stunted  to  a  shrub,  but  on  the  high,  well- 


12£  TREES 

drained  slopes  through  the  coast  region  and  in  the  red- 
wood forests  of  noj-thern  California  it  is  a  tree  that  reaches 
a  hundred  feet  in  height. 

John  Muir  writes:  "The  madroila,  clad  in  thin,  smooth, 
red  and  yellow  bark,  with  big,  glossy  leaves,  seems  in  the 
dark  coniferous  forests  of  Wasliinglon  and  Vancouver 
Island  like  some  lost  wanderer  from  tlie  magnoha  groves 
in  the  South."  All  the  year  around  this  is  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  of  American  trees.  It  bears  iai'ge  conical  clusters 
of  white  flowers  above  the  vivid  green  of  its  leathery 
leaves,  that  are  wonderfully  hghtened  by  silvery  Hnings. 
In  autumn  the  red-brown  of  the  branches  is  enriched  and 
intensified  by  the  luxm-iant  clusters  of  scarlet  berries 
against  the  red  and  orange  of  the  two-year-old  leaves. 
Among  the  giant  redwoods  this  tree  commands  the  highest 
admiration. 

THE  SORREL  TREE 

The  sorrel  tree,  or  sour-wood  {Oxydendrum  arhoreum, 
DC.)  belongs  among  the  heaths.  Its  vivid  scarlet  autumn 
foHage  is  its  chief  claim  to  the  admiration  of  gardeners.  In 
spring  the  little  tree  is  beautiful  in  its  bronze-green  foliage, 
and  in  late  July  and  August  it  bears  long  branching 
racemes  of  tiny  bell-shaped  white  flowers.  This  multitude 
of  httle  bells  suggests  the  tree's  relationship  to  the  blossom- 
ing heather  we  see  in  florists'  shops. 

The  leaves  give  the  tree  its  two  common  names:  they 
have  a  sour  taste,  resembhng  that  of  the  herbaceous  sor- 
rels. The  twigs,  even  in  the  dead  of  winter,  yield  this  re- 
freshing acid  sap,  that  flows  through  the  veins  of  the  mem- 
branous leaves  in  summer.     Many  a  hunter,  temporarily 


THE  SIL\T^R  BELL  TREES  123 

lost  in  Southern  woods,  quenches  his  thirst  by  nibbKng 
young  shoots  of  the  sour- wood. 

After  the  flower  comes  a  downy  capsule,  five-celled,  with 
numerous  pointed  seeds.  The  leaves  are  not  unlike  those 
of  a  plum  tree  except  that  they  attain  a  length  of  five  to 
seven  inches.  La  the  woods  from  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  and 
Indiana,  southward  to  Florida,  Alabama,  Louisiana,  and 
Arkansas  this  tree  ranges,  and  we  often  see  it  in  cultivation 
as  far  north  as  Boston.  It  grows  to  its  largest  size  on  the 
western  slopes  of  the  Big  Smoky  Mountains  in  Tennessee, 
attaining  here  a  height  of  sixty  feet.  In  cultivation  it  is 
one  of  the  little,  slender-stemmed,  dainty  trees,  beautiful 
at  any  season.  It  is  the  sole  representative  of  its  genus  in 
the  world,  so  far  as  botanists  know. 


THE   SILVER  BELL  TREES 

The  silver  bell  tree  (Mohrodendron  teiraptera,  Britt.) 
earns  its  name  in  May  when  among  the  green  leaves  the 
clustered  bell  flowers  gradually  pale  from  green  to  white, 
with  rosy  tints  that  seem  to  come  from  the  ruddy  flower- 
stems.  A  "snowdrop  tree"  may  be  eighty  feet  in  height 
in  the  mountains  of  east  Tennessee  and  western  North 
Carolina,  but  ordinarily  we  see  it  in  gardens  and  parks  as  a 
delicate,  slender-branched  tree,  that  stands  out  from  every 
other  species  in  the  border  as  the  loveliest  thing  that  blooms 
there. 

Not  a  moment  in  spring  lacks  interest  if  one  has  a  little 
mohrodendron  tree  to  watch.  For  weeks  the  ruddy  twigs 
grow  ruddier  by  the  opening  of  leaf  and  flower  buds;  then 
comes  the  slow  fading  of  the  flowers,  when  sun  and  rain 


124  TREES 

seem  to  work  together  to  bleach  them  into  utter  purity  of 
color  and  texture.  Gradually  the  white  bells  fade  and  a 
queer  little  green,  tapering  seed-case  enlarges  and  ripens. 
Through  the  late  summer  these  pale  green  fruits  are  ex- 
ceedingly ornamental  as  the  leaves  turn  to  pale  yellow. 

In  cultivation,  the  silver  bell  tree  is  hardy  in  the  New 
England  states,  but  in  its  native  woods  it  grows  north  no 
farther  than  West  Virginia  and  Illinois.  It  is  easily  trans- 
planted and  pruned  to  bush  form,  if  one  desires  to  keep  the 
blossoming  down  where  the  perfection  of  the  flowers  can  be 
enjoyed  at  close  range. 

Snowdrop  Tree 

M.  diptera,  Britt. 

A  second  species  called  the  snowdrop  tree  skirts  the 
swamps  along  the  South  Atlantic  and  Gulf  coast  and  fol- 
lows the  Mississippi  bayous  to  southern  Arkansas.  It  is 
smaller  in  stature  than  the  silver  bell  tree,  but  has  larger 
leaves  and  more  showy  flowers.  The  botanical  names 
record  the  chief  specific  difference  between  the  two  species : 
this  one  has  but  two  wings  on  its  seed-cases,  while  the  other 
has  four.  This  species  is  hardy  no  farther  north  than 
Philadelphia.  The  flowers  have  their  bells  cleft  almost  to 
the  base,  whereas  the  bell  of  the  other  species  is  merdy 
notched  at  the  top. 

THE  SWEET  LEAF 

Two  genera  of  trees  in  this  country  are  temperate  zone 
representatives  of  a  tropical  family  which  fmrdshes  ben- 
zoine,  torax,  and  other  valuable  balsams  of  commerce.     It 


THE  SWEET  LEAF  125 

is  easy  to  see  that  these  trees  are  strangers  from  warm 
countries,  for  many  of  their  traits  are  singularly  unfamiliar. 


The  Sweet  Leaf 

Symplocos  iinctoria,  L'Her. 

The  sweet  leaf  is  our  sole  representative  of  a  large  genus  of 
trees  native  to  the  forests  of  Austraha  and  the  tropics  in 
Asia  and  South  America.  They  yield  important  drugs  and 
dyestuffs,  particularly  in  British  India.  But  the  sweet 
leaf  is  a  small  tree,  rarely  over  twenty  feet  in  height,  with 
ashy  gray  bark,  warty  and  narrowly  fissured.  In  earhest 
spring  its  twigs  are  clothed  with  yellow  or  white  blossoms 
that  come  in  a  procession  and  cover  the  tree  from  March 
until  May,  preceding  the  leaves,  and  breathing  a  wonder- 
ful fragrance  into  the  air.  The  leaves  are  small,  leathery, 
dark  green,  lustrous  above,  deciduous  in  the  regions  of 
colder  winters,  persistent  from  one  to  two  years  in  the 
w^armer  part  of  its  range.  The  flowers  are  succeeded  by 
bro^sTi  berries  that  ripen  in  summer,  or  early  autumn. 
The  flesh  is  dry  about  the  single  seed. 

Horses  and  cattle  greedily  browse  upon  the  foliage, 
which  has  a  distinctly  sweet  taste.  The  bark  and  leaves 
both  yield  a  yellow  dye,  and  the  roots  a  tonic  from  their 
bitter,  aromatic  sap. 

"Horse  sugar"  is  another  local  name  for  this  little  tree, 
which  is  found  sparingly  from  Delaware  to  Florida,  west 
to  the  Blue  Ridge  Mountains,  and  in  the  Gulf  states  to 
Louisiana  and  northward  into  Arkansas  and  to  eastern 
Texas.  It  is  a  shade-loving  tree,  usually  found  under  the 
forest  cover   of   taller   species,   skirting   the   borders   of 


126  TREES 

cypress  swamps,  and  climbing  to  elevations  of  nearly  three 
thousand  feet  on  the  slopes  of  the  Blue  Ridge. 

A  wonderful  new  species  of  symjplocos  has  come  into 
cultivation  from  Japan  and  will  enjoy  a  constantly  in- 
creasing popularity.  Its  fragrant  white  blossoms,  before 
the  leaves,  make  the  tree  look  like  a  hawthorn;  but  its 
unique  distinction  is  that  the  racemed  fiowers  give  place 
to  berries  of  a  brilliant  turquoise  blue,  which  make  this 
shrubby  tree  a  most  striking  and  beautiful  object  in  the 
autumn  when  the  leaves  are  turning  yellow. 

THE  FRINGE  TREE 

Native  to  the  middle  and  southern  portions  of  the 
United  States  is  a  slender  little  tree  {Chionanihus  Vir- 
ginica,  Linn.),  whose  sister  species  inhabits  northern  and 
central  China.  Both  of  them  cover  their  branches  with 
delicate,  fragrant  white  flowers,  in  loose  drooping  panicles, 
when  the  leaves  are  about  one  third  grown.  Each  flower 
has  four  slender  curving  petals  an  inch  long,  but  exceed- 
ingly narrow.  In  May  and  June  the  tree  is  decked  with 
a  bridal  veil  of  white  that  makes  it  one  of  the  most  ethereal 
and  the  most  elegant  of  lawn  and  park  trees  at  this  su- 
preme moment  of  the  year.  Later  the  leaves  broaden 
and  reach  six  to  eight  inches  in  length,  tapering  narrowly 
to  the  short  petioles.  Thick  and  dark  green,  with  plain 
margins,  and  conspicuously  looped  venation  near  the 
edges,  these  leaves  suggest  a  young  magnoha  tree.  Blue 
fruits  the  size  of  plums  succeed  the  flowers  in  September, 
denying  the  magnolia  theory  and  shading  to  black  before 
they  fall.  The  flesh  is  dry  and  seeds  solitary  under  the 
thick  skin  of  the  drupe. 


THE  LAUREL  FAlVnLY  1«7 

As  in  many  other  instances,  European  gardeners  have 
led  in  the  appreciation  of  this  American  ornamental  tree. 
However,  New  England  has  planted  it  freely  in  parks  and 
gardens,  and  popularity  will  follow  wherever  it  becomes 
known.  Its  natural  distribution  is  from  southern  Penn- 
sylvania to  Florida,  and  west  to  Arkansas  and  Texas. 
In  cultivation  it  is  hardy  and  flourishes  far  north  of  its 
natural  range.  No  garden  that  can  have  a  fringe  tree 
should  be  without  it.  Fortunately  its  wood  is  negligible 
in  quantity,  and  the  temptation  to  chop  down  these  trees 
does  not  come  to  the  ignorant  man  with  an  axe.  Whoever 
goes  to  the  woods  in  May  is  rewarded  for  many  miles  of 
tramping  if  he  comes  upon  a  "snow-flower  tree"  in  the 
height  of  its  blooming  season,  led  perhaps  by  its  delicate 
fragrance  when  the  httle  tree  is  overshadowed  by  the 
deep  green  of  the  forest  cover.  It  is  an  experience  that 
will  not  be  forgotten  soon. 


THE  LAUREL  FAIVIILY 

The  laurel  family,  a  large  group  of  aromatic  trees  and 
shrubs  found  chiefly  in  tiie  tropics,  includes  with  our 
sassafras,  laurels,  and  bays  the  cinnamon  and  camphoi 
trees. 

California  Laurel 

TJmheUnria  Califomica,  Nutt. 

Tlie  California  laurel  climbs  the  western  slopes  of  the 
Sierra  Nevada  from  the  forests  of  southwestern  Oregon 
to  the  San  Bernardino  range  near  Los  Angeles.  "Up 
North"  it  is  called  pepperwood.     It  is  a  lover  of  wet  soil. 


128  TREES 

so  it  keeps  near  streams.  With  the  broad-leaved  maple 
it  gives  character  to  the  deciduous  growth  near  the  north- 
ern boundaries  of  California,  where  it  reaches  eighty  to 
ninety  feet  in  height,  and  a  trunk  diameter  of  four  to  five 
feet.  Sometimes  it  is  tall,  but  usually  it  divides  near  the 
ground  into  several  large  diverging  stems,  forming  a 
broad  round  head.  In  southern  California,  and  at  high 
elevations,  it  oftenest  occurs  as  a  low  shrub. 

The  willow-like  leaves,  lustrous  and  evergreen,  last 
often  through  the  sixth  season.  Unfolding  in  winter  or 
early  spring,  they  continue  to  appear  as  the  branches 
lengthen  until  late  in  the  autumn,  turning  to  beautiful 
yellow  or  orange  and  falling  one  by  one.  Beginning  dur- 
ing the  second  season,  they  continue  to  drop,  as  new  shoots 
loosen  their  hold.  These  leaves  are  rich  in  an  aromatic 
oil  which  causes  them  to  burn  readily  when  piled  green 
upon  a  campfire.  Plum-like  purple  fruits  succeed  the 
small  white  fragrant  flowers,  borne  in  clusters  in  the  axils 
of  the  leaves.  The  seeds  germinate  before  the  fruit 
begins  to  decay.  Indeed  the  plantlet  has  attained  con- 
siderable size  before  the  acid  flesh  shows  any  signs  of 
change. 

This  tree  is  a  superb  addition  to  the  parks  and  gardens 
of  the  Pacific  Coast.  It  is  strikingly  handsome  in  a  land 
of  handsome  trees,  native  and  exotic.  Its  wood  is  the 
most  beautiful  and  valuable  produced  in  the  forests  of 
Pacific  North  America  for  the  interior  finish  of  houses  and 
for  furniture.  It  is  heavy,  hard,  strong,  fine-grained, 
light  brown,  of  a  rich  tone,  with  paler  sap-wood,  that  in- 
cludes the  annual  growth  of  thirty  or  forty  seasons.  The 
leaves  yield  by  distillation  a  pungent,  aromatic,  volatile 
oil,  and  the  fruit  a  fatty  acid  commercially  valuable. 


THE  LAUREL  FAMILY  129 

The  Red  Bay 

Persea  Borhonia,  Streng. 

Another  laurel  native  to  stream  and  swamp  borders, 
from  Virginia  to  Texas  and  north  to  Arkansas,  is  the  red 
bay,  whose  bark,  thick,  red,  and  furrowed  into  scaly  ridges 
on  the  trunli,  becomes  smooth  and  green  on  the  branches. 
The  evergreen  leaves  are  narrowly  oval,  three  to  four 
inches  long,  bright  green,  polished,  with  pale  linings.  The 
white  flowers  are  very  minute  bells  borne  in  axillary  clus- 
ters, succeeded  in  autumn  by  blue  or  black  shiny  berries, 
one  half  inch  long,  one-seeded,  making  a  pretty  contrast 
with  the  clear  yellow  of  the  year-old  leaves  and  the  bright 
green  of  the  new  ones. 

This  native  laurel,  lover  of  rich,  moist  soil,  deserves  the 
place  in  cultivation  more  commonly  granted  its  European 
cousin,  Launis  nohilU;,  Linn.,  the  familiar  tub  laurel  of 
hotel  verandas  in  the  Northern  states,  and  much  grown 
out  of  doors  in  southern  California  and  in  milder  climates 
east.  The  tree  is  occasionally  sixty  to  seventy  feet  high, 
with  trunk  two  to  three  feet  in  diameter.  Such  specimens 
furnish  the  cabinet-maker  and  carpenter  with  a  beautiful, 
bright  red,  close-grained  wood  for  fine  interior  finish  and 
furniture.  Formerly  it  was  used  in  the  construction  of 
river  boats,  but  the  timber  supply  is  now  very  limited. 

The  Avocado 

P.  gratis'simay  Gaertn. 

In  Florida  and  southern  California  the  avocado  or 
alligator    pear    is    bein^    extensively    cultivated.     This 


130  TREES 

laurel- grows  wild  in  the  West  Indies,  Brazil,  Peru,  and 
Mexico.  Its  berry  attains  the  size  of  a  large  pear.  It  has 
been  developed  in  several  commercial  varieties,  all  having 
smooth  green  or  purple  skin,  and  soft  oily  pulp  like  mar- 
row surrounding  a  single  gigantic  seed.  It  is  usually  cut 
in  two  like  a  melon  and  eaten  raw  as  a  salad  dressed  with 
vinegar,  salt,  and  pepper.  Once  a  stranger  acquires  the 
taste,  he  is  extremely  fond  of  this  new  salad  fruit.  The 
growing  of  the  trees  is  easy  and  very  profitable.  At 
present  the  fruits  are  in  great  demand  in  city  markets, 
and  the  prices  are  too  high  for  any  but  the  rich  to  enjoy 
this  luxury. 

Where  a  market  is  difficult  to  reach,  the  abundant  cU  is 
expressed  from  these  fruits  and  used  for  illumination  and 
the  manufacture  of  soap.     The  seeds  yield  an  indehble  ink. 

It  is  interesting  to  the  student  of  trees  to  note  how  many 
tropical  families  have  representation  in  North  America, 
due  to  the  fact  that  Florida  extends  into  the  tropics,  and 
the  West  Indies  seem  to  form  a  sort  of  bridge  over  which 
Central  American  and  South  American  species  have 
reached  the  Floridian  Keys  and  the  mainland. 

The  Sassafras 

Sassafras,  Karst. 

The  sole  remnant  of  an  ancient  genus  is  the  aro- 
matic sassafras  familiar  as  a  roadside  tree  that  flames 
in  autumn  with  the  star  gum  and  the  swamp  maples.  In 
the  deep  woods  it  reaches  a  height  of  more  than  a 
hundred  feet  and  is  an  important  lumber  tree.  In  the 
arctic  regions  and  in  the  rocky  strata  of  our  western 
mountains,  fossil  leaves  of  sassafras  are  preserved,  and 


THE  LAUREL  FAMILY  131 

the  same  traces  are  found  in  Europe,  giving  to  the  geologist 
proofs  that  the  genus  once  had  a  much  wider  range  than 
now.  But  no  hving  representative  of  the  genus  was  known 
outside  of  eastern  North  America,  until  the  report  of  a 
recently  discovered  sassafras  in  China. 

The  Indians  in  Florida  named  the  sassafras  to  the 
inquiring  colonists  who  came  with  Columbus.  They  ex- 
plaineil  its  curative  properties,  and  its  reputation  traveled 
up  the  Atlantic  seaboard.  The  first  cargo  of  home 
products  shipped  by  the  colonists  back  to  England 
from  Massachusetts  contained  a  large  consignment 
of  sassafras  roots.  To-day  we  look  for  an  exhibit  of 
sassafras  bark  in  drug-stoxe  windows  in  spring.  People 
buy  it  and  make  sassafras  tea  which  they  drink  "to 
clear  the  blood."  "In  the  Southwestern  states  the  dried 
leaves  are  much  used  as  an  ingredient  in  soups,  for  which 
they  are  well  adapted  by  the  abundance  of  mucilage  they 
contain.  For  this  purpose  the  mature  green  leaves  are 
dried,  powdered  (the  stringy  portions  being  separated), 
sifted  and  preserved  for  use.  This  preparation  mixed 
with  soups  gives  tliem  a  ropy  consistence  and  a  peculiar 
flavor,  much  relished  by  those  accustomed  to  it.  To  such 
soups  are  given  tlie  names  garnbofile  and  gombo  zab.^^  (Seton.) 

Emerson  says  that  in  New  England  a  decoction  of 
sassafras  bark  gave  to  the  housewife's  homespun  woolen 
cloth  a  permanent  orange  dye.  The  name  "Ague  Tree" 
originated  with  the  use  of  sassafras  bark  tea  as  a  stimulant 
that  warmed  and  brought  out  the  perspiration  freely  for 
victims  of  the  malarial  "ague,"  or  "chills  and  fever." 

Sassafras  wood  is  dull  orange-yellow,  soft,  weak,  light, 
brittle,  and  coarse-grained,  but  it  is  amazingly  durable 
in  contact  with  the  soil,  as  the  pioneers  learned  when  they 


132  TREES 

used  it  to  make  posts  and  fence  rails.  It  is  largely  used 
also  in  cooperage,  and  in  the  building  of  light  boats.  Oil 
of  sassafras  distilled  from  the  bark  of  the  roots  is  used  for 
perfuming  soaps  and  flavoring  medicines. 

With  all  its  practical  uses  listed  above,  we  must  all 
have  learned  to  know  the  tree  if  it  grows  in  our  neighbor- 
hood, and  if  we  observe  it  closely,  month  by  month 
throughout  the  year,  we  shall  all  agree  that  its  beauty 
justifies  its  selection  for  planting  in  our  home  grounds,  and 
surpasses  all  its  medicinal  and  other  commercial  offerings 
to  the  world. 

In  winter  the  sassafras  tree  is  most  picturesque  by  reason 
of  the  short,  stout,  twisted  branches  that  spread  almost  at 
right  angles  from  the  central  shaft,  and  form  a  narrow, 
usually  flat,  often  unsymmetrical  head.  The  bark  is 
rough,  reddish  brown,  deeply  and  irregularly  divided  into 
broad  scaly  plates  or  ridges.  The  branches  end  in  slim,  pale 
yellow-green  twigs  that  are  set  with  pointed,  bright  green 
buds,  giving  the  tree  an  appearance  of  being  thoroughly 
alive  while  others,  bare  of  leaves,  look  dead  in  winter. 

What  country  boy  or  girl  has  not  lingered  on  the  way 
home  from  school  to  nibble  the  dainty  green  buds  of  the 
sassafras,  or  to  dig  at  the  roots  with  his  jack-knife  for  a 
sliver  of  aromatic  bark? 

As  spring  comes  on  the  bare  twigs  are  covered  with  a 
delicate  green  of  the  opening  leaves,  brightened  by  clusters 
of  yellow  flowers  {see  illustration,  page  150)  whose  starry 
calyxes  are  alike  on  all  of  the  trees;  but  only  on  the  fertile 
trees  are  the  flowers  succeeded  by  the  blue  berries,  soften- 
ing on  their  scarlet  pedicels,  if  only  the  birds  can  wait  until 
they  are  ripe. 

Midsummer  is  the  time  to  hunt  for  "mittens"  and  to 


THE  WITCH  HAZEL  133 

note  how  many  different  forms  of  leaves  belong  on  the 
same  sassafras  tree.  First,  there  is  the  simple  ovate  leaf; 
second,  a  larger  blade  oval  in  form  but  with  one  side  ex- 
tended and  lobed  to  form  a  thumb,  making  the  whole 
leaf  look  like  the  pattern  of  a  mitten  cut  out  by  an  un- 
skilled hand;  third,  a  symmetrical,  three-lobed  leaf,  the 
pattern  of  a  narrow  mitten  with  a  large  thumb  on  each 
side.  Not  infrequently  do  all  these  forms  occur  on  a  single 
twig.  Only  the  mulberry,  among  our  native  trees,  shows 
such  a  variety  of  leaf  forms  as  the  sassafras.  There  is 
quite  as  great  variation  in  the  size  of  the  leaves.  One 
law  seems  to  prevail  among  sassafras  trees:  more  of  the 
oval  leaves  than  the  lobed  ones  are  found  on  mature  trees. 
It  is  the  roadside  sapling,  with  its  foliage  within  easy 
reach,  that  delights  boys  and  girls  with  its  wonderful 
variety  of  leaf  patterns.  Here  the  size  of  the  leaves  greatly 
surpasses  that  of  the  foliage  on  full-grown  trees,  and  the 
autumnal  colors  are  more  glorious  in  the  roadside  thickets 
than  in  the  tree- tops  far  above  them. 

Sassafras  trees  grow  readily  from  seed  in  any  loose, 
moist  soil.  A  single  tree  spreads  by  a  multitude  of  fleshy 
root-stalks,  and  these  natural  root-cuttings  bear  trans- 
planting as  easily  as  a  poplar.  Every  garden  border 
should  have  one  specimen  at  least  to  add  its  flame  to  the 
conflagration  of  autumn  foliage  and  the  charming  con- 
trast of  its  blue  berries  on  their  coral  stalks. 

THE  WITCH  HAZEL 

Eighteen  genera  compose  the  sub-tropical  family  in 
which  hamamelis  is  the  type.  Two  or  three  Asiatic 
species  and  one  American  are  known. 


134  TREES 

Tlie  witch  hazel  (Hamamelis  Virginiana,  Linn.)  is  a  stout, 
many-stemmed  shrub  or  a  small  tree,' with  rough  unsymmet- 
rical  leaves,  strongly  veined,  coarsely  toothed,  and  roughly 
diamond-shaped.  The  twigs,  when  bare,  are  set  with  hairy 
sickle-shaped  buds.  Nowhere  in  summer  would  an  under- 
growth of  witch  hazel  trees  attract  attention.  But  in 
autumn,  when  other  trees  have  reached  a  state  of  utter  rest, 
the  witch  hazel  wakes  and  bursts  into  bloom.  Among  the 
dead  leaves  which  stubbornly  cling  as  they  yellow,  and 
often  persist  until  spring,  the  tiny  buds,  the  size  of  a  pin- 
head,  open  into  starry  blossoms  with  petals  like  gold 
threads.  The  witch  hazel  thicket  is  veiled  with  these  gold- 
mesh  flowers,  as  ethereal  as  the  haunting  perfume  which 
they  exhale.  Frost  crisps  the  delicate  petals  but  they  curl 
up  like  shavings  and  stay  till  spring.  At  no  time  is  the 
weather  cold  enough  to  destroy  this  November  flower  show. 

Among  the  blossoms  are  the  pods  in  clusters,  gaping 
wide  if  the  seeds  are  shed;  closed  tight,  with  little  monkey 
faces,  if  not  yet  open.  The  harvest  of  witch  hazel  seeds 
is  worth  going  far  to  see.  Damp  weather  delays  this  most 
interesting  little  game.     Dry  frosty  weather  is  ideal  for  it. 

Go  into  a  witch  hazel  thicket  on  some  fine  morning  in 
early  November  and  sit  down  on  the  drift  of  dead  leaves 
that  carpet  the  woods  floor.  The  silence  is  broken  now 
and  then  by  a  sharp  report  like  a  bullet  striking  against  the 
bark  of  a  near-by  trunk,  or  skipping  among  the  leaves. 
Perhaps  a  twinge  on  the  ear  shows  that  you  have  been  a 
target  for  some  tiny  projectile,  sent  to  its  mark  with  force 
enough  to  hurt. 

The  fusillade  comes  from  the  ripened  pods,  which  have  a 
remarkable  ability  to  throw  their  seeds,  and  thus  do  for  the 
parent  tree  what  the  winged  seeds  of  other  trees  accom- 


Srr  luuj,-  111 
BAHK,   liLORsOM,   FIUIT,    AXO  WI\ri:i.'    1  L()\\  KK    IJUDS 
OF     rili;     II.OWFHINC     l)()(i\V(>(H) 


THE  WITCH  HAZEL  135 

plish.  The  lining  of  the  two-celled  pod  is  believed  to 
shorten  and  produce  a  spring  that  drives  the  seeds  forth 
with  surprising  force  when  they  are  loosened  from  their 
attachment.  This  occurs  when  the  lips  part.  Frost  and 
sun  seem  to  decide  just  when  to  spring  the  trap  and  let  fly 
the  little  black  seeds. 

A  young  botanist  went  into  the  woods  to  find  out  just 
how  far  a  witch  hazel  tree  can  throw  its  seeds.  She  chose 
an  isolated  tree  and  spread  white  muslin  under  it  for  many 
yards  in  four  directions.  The  most  remote  of  the  many 
seeds  she  caught  that  day  fell  eighteen  feet  from  the  base 
of  the  tree. 

The  Indians  in  America  were  the  first  people  to  use  the 
bark  of  the  witch  hazel  for  curing  inflammations.  An  in- 
fusion of  the  twigs  and  roots  is  now  made  by  boiling  them 
for  twenty -four  hours  in  water  to  w^hich  alcohol  has  been 
added.  "Witch  hazel  extract,"  distilled  from  this  mix- 
ture, is  the  most  popular  preparation  to  use  for  bruises  and 
sprains,  and  to  allay  the  pain  of  burns.  Druggists  and 
chemists  have  failed  to  discover  any  medicinal  properties 
in  bark  or  leaf,  but  the  public  has  faith  in  it.  The  alcohol 
is  probably  the  effective  agent. 

Witch  hazel  comes  honestly  by  its  name.  The  English 
"witch  hazel"  is  a  species  of  elm  to  which  superstitious 
miners  went  to  get  forked  twigs  to  use  as  divining  rods. 
No  one  in  the  countryside  w^ould  dream  of  sinking  a  shaft 
for  coal  without  the  use  of  this  forked  twig.  In  any  old  and 
isolated  country  district  in  America  there  is  usually  a  man 
whose  reputation  is  based  in  his  skilful  use  of  a  forked 
witch  hazel  twig.  Sent  for  before  a  wtII  is  dug,  he  slowly 
walks  over  the  ground,  holding  the  twig  erect  by  its  two 
supple  forks,  one  in  each  hand.     When  he  passes  over  the 


136  TREES 

spot  where  the  hidden  springs  of  water  are,  the  twig  goes 
down,  without  any  voKtion  of  the  "  water- witch . "  At  least, 
so  he  says,  and  if  water  is  struck  by  digging,  his  claims  are 
vindicated  and  scoffers  hide  their  heads. 


THE  BURNING  BUSH 

American  gardeners  cherish  with  regard  that  amounts 
almost  to  affection  any  shrub  or  tree  which  will  lend  color, 
especially  brilliant  color,  to  the  winter  landscape.  Thus 
the  hollyj  the  Japanese  barberry,  many  of  the  haws,  the 
moimtain  ash,  and  the  rugosa  rose  will  be  found  in  the 
shrubbery  borders  of  many  gardens,  supplying  the  birds 
with  food  when  the  ground  is  covered  with  snow,  and 
sprinkling  the  brightness  of  their  red  berries  against  the 
monotony  of  dull  green  conifers. 

The  burning  bush  {Euonymus  atropurpureus,  Jacq.)  lends 
its  scarlet  fruits  to  the  vivid  colors  that  paint  any  winter 
landscape.  They  hang  on  slender  stalks,  clustered  where 
the  leaves  were  attached.  Four  flattish  lobes,  deeply  sepa- 
rated by  constrictions,  form  each  of  these  strange-looking 
fruits.  In  October  each  is  pale  purplish  in  color  and  one 
half  an  inch  across.  Now  the  husk  parts  and  curls  back, 
revealing  the  seeds,  each  of  the  four  enveloped  in  a  loose 
scarlet  wrinkled  coat.  Until  midwinter  the  httle  tree  is 
indeed  a  burning  bushs  glowing  brighter  as  the  advancing 
season  opens  wider  the  purple  husks,  and  the  little 
swinging  Maltese  cross,  made  by  the  four  scarlet  berries, 
is  the  only  thing  one  sees,  looking  up  from  below. 
Birds  take  the  berries,  though  they  are  bitter  and 
poisonouSo 


THE  SUMACHS  137 

In  spring  the  slender  branchlets  of  this  little  tree  are 
covered  with  opposite,  pointed  leaves,  two  to  five  inches 
long,  and  in  their  axils  are  borne  purplish  flowers,  with  four 
spreading  recurving  petals.  In  the  centre  of  each  is  sup- 
ported a  square  platform  upon  which  are  the  spreading 
anthers  and  styles.  It  does  not  require  much  botanical 
knowledge  to  see  a  family  relationship  between  this  tree 
and  the  woody  vine  we  call  "bitter-sweet";  the  flowers  and 
fruits  are  alike  in  many  features. 

In  Oklahoma  and  Arkansas  and  eastern  Texas  the 
burning  bush  becomes  a  good-sized  tree  and  its  hard,  close- 
grained  wood  is  peculiarly  adapted  to  making  spindles, 
knitting  needles,  skewers,  and  toothpicks.  "Prickwood" 
is  the  English  name.  Chinese  and  Japanese  species 
have  been  added  to  our  list  of  flowering  trees  and  vines. 
Two  shrubby  species  of  Euonymus  belong  to  the  flora 
of  North  America,  but  the  bulk  of  the  large  family  is 
tropical. 

Our  dainty  little  American  tree  skirts  the  edges  of  deep 
woods  from  New  York  to  INIontana,  and  southward  to  the 
Gulf.  In  cultivation  it  extends  throughout  New  England. 
'*Wahoo,"  the  common  name  in  the  South,  is  probably  of 
Indian  origin. 

THE  STOIACHS 

The  sumach  family  contidns  more  than  fifty  genera,  con- 
fined for  the  most  part  to  the  warmer  regions  of  the  globe. 
Two  fruit  trees  within  this  family  are  the  mango  and  the 
pistachio  nut  tree.  Commercially  important  also  is  the 
turpentine  tree  of  southern  Europe.  The  Japanese 
lacquer  tree  yields  the  black  varnish  used  in  all  lacquered 


138  TREES 

wares.  The  cultivated  sumachs  of  southern  Europe 
are  important  in  the  tanning  industry,  their  leaves  con- 
taining from  twenty-five  to  thirty  per  cent,  of  tannic 
acid. 

In  the  flora  of  the  United  States  three  genera  of  the 
family  have  tree  representatives.  The  genus  Rhus,  with  a 
total  of  one  hundred  and  twenty  species,  stands  first. 
Most  of  these  belong  to  South  Africa;  sixteen  to  North 
America  where  their  distribution  covers  practically  the 
entire  continent.  Of  these,  four  attain  the  habit  of  small 
trees. 

Fleshy  roots,  pithy  branchlets,  and  milky,  or  sometimes 
caustic  or  watery  juice,  belong  to  the  sumachs,  which  are 
oftenest  seen  as  roadside  thickets  or  fringing  the  borders  of 
woods.  The  foliage  is  fernlike,  odd-pinnate,  rarely  simple. 
The  flowers  are  conspicuous  by  their  crowding  into  termi- 
nal or  axillary  panicles,  followed  by  bony  fruits,  densely 
crowded  like  the  flowers. 


The  Staghorn  Sumach 

Rhus  hirta,  Sudw. 

The  staghorn  sumach  is  named  for  the  densely  hairy, 
forking  branchlets,  which  look  much  like  the  horns  of  a 
stag  "in  the  velvet."  The  foliage  and  fruit  are  also 
densely  clothed  with  stiff  pale  hairs,  usually  red  or  bright 
yellow. 

The  leaves  reach  two  feet  in  length,  with  twenty  or 
thirty  oblong,  often  sickle-shaped  leaflets,  set  opposite  on 
the  stem,  and  terminating  in  a  single  odd  leaflet.  Bright 
yellow-green  until  half  grown,  dark  green  and  dull  above 


TIIE  SUlVLVCnS  139 

when  mature,  often  nearly  white  on  the  under  surface, 
these  leaves  turn  in  autumn  to  bright  scarlet,  shading  into 
purple,  crimson,  and  orange.  No  sunset  was  ever  more 
changeful  and  glorious  than  a  patch  of  staghorn  sumach 
that  covers  the  ugliness  of  a  railroad  siding  in  October. 
After  the  leaves  have  fallen,  the  dull  red  fuzzy  fruits  per- 
sist, offering  food  to  belated  bird  migrants  and  gradually 
fading  to  browns  before  spring. 

The  maximum  height  of  this  largest  of  northern 
sumachs  is  thirty -five  feet.  The  wood  of  such  large  speci- 
mens is  sometimes  used  for  walking-sticks  and  for  tabou- 
rets and  such  fancy  work  as  inlaying.  Coarse,  soft,  and 
brittle,  it  is  satiny  when  pohshed,  and  attractively  streaked 
w^th  orange  and  green.  The  young  shoots  are  cut  and 
their  pith  contents  removed  to  make  pipes  for  drawing 
maple  sap  from  the  trees  in  sugaring  time. 

But  the  best  use  of  the  tree  is  for  ornamental  planting. 
In  summer,  the  ughness  of  the  most  unsightly  bank  is 
covered  where  this  tree  is  allowed  to  run  wild  and  throw  up 
its  root  suckers  unchecked.  The  mass  effect  of  its  fern- 
like  fohage  in  spring  is  superb,  when  the  green  is  lightened 
by  the  fine  clusters  of  pink  blossoms.  No  tree  carries  its 
autumn  foliage  longer  nor  blazes  with  greater  splendor  in 
the  soft  sunshine  of  the  late  year.  The  hairy  staghorn 
branches,  bared  of  leaves,  hold  aloft  their  fruits  like  lighted 
candelabra  far  into  the  waning  winter.  For  screens  and 
border  shrubs  this  sumach  may  become  objectionable, 
by  reason  of  its  habit  of  spreading  by  suckers  as  well  as 
seed. 

Its  choice  of  situations  is  broken  uplands  and  dry, 
gravelly  banks.  Its  range  extends  from  New  Brunswick 
to  Minuesotxi  and  southward  through  the  Northern  states,- 


140  TREES 

and  along  the  mountains  to  the  Gulf  states.  In  cultiva- 
tion, it  is  found  in  the  Middle  West  and  on  the  Atlantic 
seaboard,  and  is  a  favorite  in  central  and  northern 
Europe. 

The  Dwarf  Sumach 

R.  copallina,  Linn. 

The  black  dwarf,  or  mountain  sumach,  is  smaller,  with 
softer,  closer  velvet  coating  its  twigs  and  Hning  its  leaves, 
than  the  burly  staghorn  sumach  wears.  It  grows  all  over 
the  eastern  half  of  the  United  States,  even  to  the  foothills 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  rises  to  thirty  feet  in  height 
above  a  short,  stout  trunk  in  the  mountains  of  Tennessee 
and  North  Carolina.  Its  leaves  are  the  most  beautiful  in 
the  sumach  family.  They  are  six  to  eight  inches  long,  the 
central  stalk  bearing  nine  to  twenty-one  dark  green 
leaflets,  lustrous  above,  lined  w^ith  silvery  pubescence.  A 
striking  peculiarity  is  that  the  central  leaf -stem  is  winged 
on  each  side  with  a  leafy  frill  between  the  pairs  of  leaflets. 
In  autumn,  the  foliage  mass  changes  to  varying  shades  of 
scarlet  and  crimson.  The  flower  clusters  are  copious  and 
loose,  and  the  heavy  fruits  nod  from  their  great  weight  and 
show  the  most  beautiful  shades,  ranging  from  yellow  to  dull 
red.  Sterile  soil  is  often  covered  by  extensive  growths  of 
this  charming  shrubby  tree  which  spreads  by  underground 
root-stocks.     It  is  the  latest  of  all  the  sumachs  to  bloom. 

In  the  South  the  leaves  are  sometimes  gathered  in 
summer  to  be  di'ied  and  pulverized  for  use  in  tanning 
leather.  A  yellow  dyestufl  is  also  extracted  from  them. 
It  is  a  favorite  sumach  for  ornamental  planting  in  this 
country  and  in  Europe. 


THE  SUMACHS  141 

^The  Poison  Sumach 

R.  Vernix,  Linn. 

The  poison  sumach  is  a  small  tree  with  slender  drooping 
branches,  smooth,  reddish  brown,  dotted  on  the  twigs 
with  orange-colored  breathing  holes,  becoming  orange- 
brown  and  gray  as  the  bark  thickens.  The  trunk  is  often 
somewhat  fluted  under  a  smooth  gray  rind.  This  is  one 
of  the  most  brilliant  and  beautiful  of  all  the  sumachs, 
but  unfortunately  it  is  deadly  poisonous,  more  to  he  dreaded 
than  the  poison  ivy  of  our  woods,  and  the  poisonwood  of 
Florida,  both  of  which  are  near  relatives.  By  certain 
traits  we  may  always  know,  with  absolute  certainty,  a 
poison  sumach  when  we  find  it.  Look  at  the  berries.  If 
tJiey  droop  and  are  grayish  white,  avoid  touching  the  tree, 
no  matter  how  alluring  the  wonderful  scarlet  foliage  is. 
Poison  sumachs  grow  only  in  the  swamps.  We  sJiould  su^~ 
pect  any  sumach  that  stands  ivith  its  feet  in  tJie  tvater, 
whether  it  bears  flow^ers  and  fruit  or  not.  The  temptation 
is  strongest  when  one  is  in  the  w^oods  gathering  brilliant 
foliage  for  decoration  of  the  home  for  the  holidays.  The 
bitter  poisonous  juice  that  exudes  from  broken  stems  turns 
black  almost  at  once.  This  warning  comes  late,  however, 
for  as  it  dries  upon  the  hands  it  poisons  the  skin.  Handled 
with  care,  this  juice  becomes  a  black,  lustrous,  durable 
varnish,  but  it  is  not  in  general  use. 

The  Smooth  Sumach 

J\.  glabra,  Linn. 

The  smooth  sumach  {.sre  illustrations,  pages  150-151)  is 
quite  as  familiar  as  the  staghorn,  as  a  roadside  shrub.     It 


142  TREES 

forms  thickets  in  exactly  the  same  way,  and  its  foliage,  flow- 
ers and  fruit  make  it  most  desirable  for  decorative  planting, 
especially  for  glorious  autumnal  effects.  The  stems  are 
smooth  and  coated  with  a  pale  bluish  bloom.  This  is  the 
distinguishing  mark,  at  any  season,  of  the  sumach  that 
often  equals  the  other  species  in  height,  but  does  not  be- 
long in  this  book,  for  the  reason  that  it  never  attains  the 
stature  of  a  tree. 


THE  SMOKE  TREE 

A  favorite  tree  in  American  and  European  gardens  is 
the  smoke  tree  (Cotinus),  a  genus  which  has  native  repre- 
sentatives in  both  continents.  The  European  C.  Cotinus, 
Sarg.,  was  brought  to  this  country  by  early  horticulturists 
and  in  some  respects  it  is  superior  to  our  native  C.  Ameri- 
caiius,  Nutt.  Cultivation  for  centuries  has  given  the 
immigrant  species  greater  vigor  and  hardiness,  which 
produces  more  exuberant  growth  throughout.  Bring  in  a 
sapling  of  the  native  tree  and  it  looks  a  starveling  by 
comparison. 

The  glory  of  the  smoke  tree  is  the  utter  failure  of  its 
clustered  flowers  to  set  seed.  Branching  terminal  panicles 
of  minute  flowers  are  held  high  above  the  dark  green  simple 
leaves.  As  they  change  in  autumn  to  brilliant  shades  of 
orange  and  scarlet,  the  seed  clusters  are  held  aloft.  The 
seeds  are  few  but  the  panicles  have  expanded  and  show  a 
peculiar  feathery  development  of  the  bracts  that  take 
the  place  of  the  fruits.  The  clusters  take  on  tones  of 
pink  and  lavender  and  in  the  aggregate  they  form  a 
great  cloud  made  up  of  graceful,  delicate  plumes.     At 


THE  HOLLIES  143 

a  little  distance  the  tree  appears  as  if  a  great  cloud 
of  rosy  smoke  rested  upon  its  gorgeous  foliage.  Or  the 
haze  may  be  so  pale  as  to  look  like  mist.  This  won- 
derful development  of  the  flower  chister  is  unique  among 
garden  shrubs  and  it  places  Coiiniis  in  a  class  by  itself. 
No  garden  with  a  shrubbery  border  is  complete  without 
a  smoke  tree,  which  is  interestmg  and  beautiful  at  any 
season. 

In  its  native  haunts  our  American  smoke  tree  is  found 
in  small  isolated  groves  or  thickets,  along  the  sides  of 
rocky  ravines  or  dry  barren  hillsides  in  Missouri,  Okla- 
homa, and  Texas,  and  in  eastern  Tennessee  and  northern 
Alabama. 


THE  HOLLIES 

The  holly  family,  of  five  genera,  is  distributed  from  the 
north  to  the  south  temperate  zones,  with  representation 
m  every  continent.  It  includes  trees  and  shrubs  of  one 
hundred  and  seventy-five  species,  seventy  of  which  grow 
in  northern  Brazil.  The  dried  and  powdered  leaves  of 
two  holly  trees  of  Paraguay  are  commercially  known  as 
mate,  or  Paraguay  tea,  to  which  the  people  of  South 
America  are  addicted,  as  we  are  to  the  tea  of  China. 
"Yerba  mate"  has  a  remarkable,  stimulating  effect  upon 
the  human  system,  fortifying  it  for  incredible  exertions 
and  endurance.  Indulged  in  to  excess,  it  has  much  the 
effect  of  alcohol. 

China  and  Japan  have  thirty  different  species  of  holly. 
America  has  fourteen,  four  of  which  assume  tree  form; 
the  rest  are  shrubby  *'winterberries.'* 


144  TREES 

European  Holly 

Ilex  aquifolium,  Linn. 

The  holly  of  Europe  is  perhaps  the  most  popular  orna- 
mental tree  in  the  world,  cultivated  in  Europe  through 
centuries,  and  now  coming  to  be  a  favorite  garden  plant 
wherever  hardy  in  the  United  States.  Some  indication 
of  its  popularity  abroad  is  found  in  the  fact  that  one 
hundred  and  fifty-three  distinct  horticultural  varieties 
are  in  cultivation.  The  Englishman  makes  hedges  of  it, 
and  depends  upon  it  to  give  life  and  color  to  his  lawn  and 
flower  borders  in  the  winter.  The  fellfare  or  fieldfare,  a 
little  thrush,  feeds  upon  the  tempting  red  berries  in  winter; 
but  even  when  these  dashes  of  color  are  all  gone,  the 
brilliance  of  the  spiny-margined  leaves  enlivens  any 
landscape. 

Americans  know  the  European  holly  chiefly  through 
importations  of  the  cut  branches  offered  in  the  markets  for 
Christmas  decoration.  The  leaf  is  small,  brilliantly^ 
polished,  and  very  deeply  indented  between  long,  spiny 
tips,  giving  it  a  far  more  decorative  quality  than  the 
native  evergreen  holly  of  the  South. 

Many  varieties  of  the  European  holly  are  found  in 
American  gardens,  particularly  near  eastern  cities.  North 
of  Washington  they  must  be  tied  up  in  straw  for  the  winter, 
and  in  the  latitude  of  Boston  it  is  a  struggle  to  keep 
them  alive.  From  southern  California  to  Vancouver, 
no  such  precautions  are  necessary,  and  the  little  trees 
deserve  a  much  wider  popularity  than  they  yet  enjoy. 
Grown  commercially,  they  are  the  finest  of  Christmas 
greens. 


THE  HOLLIES  145 

American  Holly 

/.  Opaca,  Ait. 

The  American  holly  also  yields  its  branches  for  Christ- 
mas greens.  In  the  remotest  village  in  the  North  one 
may  now  buy  at  any  grocery  store  a  sprig  of  red-berried 
holly  to  usher  in  the  holiday  season.  The  tree  is  a  small 
one  at  best,  slow-growing,  pyramidal,  twenty  to  forty 
feet  in  height,  with  short,  horizontal  branches  and  tough, 
close-grained  white  wood.  It  is  rare  to  find  so  close  an 
imitation  of  ivory,  in  color  and  texture,  as  holly  wood 
supplies.  It  is  the  delight  of  the  wood  engraver,  who 
uses  it  for  his  blocks.  Scroll  work  and  turnery  employ  it. 
It  is  used  for  tool  handles,  walking-sticks,  and  whip-stocks. 
'Veneer  of  holly  is  used  in  inlay  work. 

In  southern  woods  and  barren  fallow  fields  where 
hollies  grow,  collectors,  without  discrimination,  cut  many 
trees  each  autumn,  strip  them  of  their  branches,  and  leave 
the  trunks  to  rot  upon  the  ground.  The  increasing  de- 
mand for  Christmas  holly  seriously  threatens  the  present 
supply,  for  no  methods  are  being  practised  for  its  renewal. 
It  will  not  be  long  before  the  wood  engraver  will  have  to  buy 
his  blocks  by  the  pound,  as  he  does  the  eastern  boxwood. 

The  range  of  this  holly  tree  extends  from  southern  Maine 
to  Florida,  throughout  the  Gulf  states,  and  north  into 
Indiana  and  Missouri. 

The  Yaupon 

7.  vomitoria.  Ait. 

The  yaupon  is  a  shrubby  tree  of  spreading  habit,  with 
very  small,  oval,  evergreen  leaves  and  red  berries.     It 


146  TREES 

grows  from  Virginia  to  Florida  and  west  to  Texas  and 
Arkansas.  A  nauseating  beverage,  made  by  boiling  its 
leaves,  was  the  famous  "black  drink"  of  the  Indians.  A 
yearly  ceremonial,  in  which  the  whole  tribe  took  part,  was 
the  persistent  drinking  of  this  tea  for  several  days,  the 
object  being  a  thorough  cleansing  of  the  system. 


PART  V 

WILD  RELATIVES  OF  OUR  ORCHARD  TREES 

The  Apples — The  Plums — The  Cherries — The  Haw- 
thorns— The  Service-berries — The  Hackberries 
— The  Mulberries — The  Figs — The  Papaws — The 
Pond  Apples — The  Persimmons 

THE  APPLES 

The  chance  apple  tree  beside  the  road,  with  fruit  too 
gnarly  to  eat,  is  common  on  roadsides  throughout  New 
England.  Occasionally  one  of  these  trees  bears  edible 
fruit,  but  this  is  not  the  rule.  Perhaps  the  seed  thus 
planted  was  from  the  core  of  a  very  delicious  apple, 
nibbled  close,  and  thrown  away  with  regret.  But  trees 
thus  planted  are  seedlings  and  seedling  apple  trees  "re- 
vert" to  the  ancient  parent  of  the  race,  the  wild  apple  of 
eastern  Asia.  Horticulture  began  long  ago  to  improve 
these  wild  trees,  and  through  the  centuries  improvement 
and  variation  have  stocked  the  orchards  of  all  temperate 
countries  with  the  multitude  of  varieties  we  know.  A  visit 
in  October  to  Nova  Scotia  or  to  the  Yakima  Valley  in 
^Yashington,  is  an  eye-opener.  Thousands  of  acres  of  the 
choicest  varieties  of  this  most  satisfying  of  all  fruits  show 
the  debt  we  owe  to  patient  scientists,  whose  work  has  so 
enriched  the  food  supply  of  the  world. 

147 


148  TREES 

The  pear,  the  quince,  and  the  curious  medlar,  with  its 
core  exposed  at  the  blossom  end — all  relatives  of  the]apple — 
trace  their  lineage  to  European  and  Asiatic  wild  ancestors. 
The  Siberian  crab,  native  of  northern  Asia,  is  the  parent  of 
our  hard-fleshed,  slender-stemmed  garden  crabapples. 
Japan  has  given  us  some  wonderful  apple  trees,  with  fruit 
no  larger  than  cherries,  cultivated  solely  for  their  flowers. 
The  ornamental  flora  of  America  has  been  greatly  enriched 
by  these  varieties. 

Four  native  apples  are  found  in  American  woods. 
Horticulturists  have  produced  new  varieties  by  crossing 
some  of  these  sturdy  natives  with  cultivated  apples,  or 
their  seedling  offspring. 

The  Prairie  Crab 

Mains  loensis,  Britt. 

The  prairie  crab  apple  is  the  woolly  twigged,  pink-blos- 
somed wild  crab  of  the  woods,  from  Minnesota  and  Wis- 
consin to  Oklahoma,  Texas,  and  Louisiana.  It  has  crossed 
with  the  roadside  "wilding"  trees  and  produced  a  hybrid 
known  to  horticulture  as  the  Soulard  apple,  from  its  dis- 
coverer. These  wild  trees  bear  fruit  that  is  distinctly  an 
improvement  upon  that  of  either  parent.  It  is  regarded 
as  a  distinctly  promising  apple  for  the  coldest  of  the 
prairie  states,  and  has  already  become  the  parent  of  several 
improved  varieties. 

The  Wild  Crab 

M.  coronaria.  Mill. 

Throughout  the  wooded  regions,  from  the  Great  Lakes 
to  Texas  and  Alabama,  the  wild  crabapple  brightens  the 


THE  PLTOIS  149 

spring  landscape  with  its  rose-colored,  spicy-scented  blos- 
soms. The  little  trees  huddle  together,  their  flat  tops 
often  matted  and  reaching  out  sidewise  from  under  the 
shade  of  the  other  forest  trees.  The  twigs  are  crabbed  in- 
deed in  winter,  but  they  silver  over  with  the  young  foliage 
in  April.  The  coral  flower  buds  sprinkle  the  new  leaves, 
and  through  May  a  great  burst  of  rose-colored  bloom 
overspreads  the  tree- tops.  It  is  not  sweetness  merely 
that  these  flowers  exhale,  but  an  exquisite,  spicy, 
stimulating  fragrance,  by  which  one  always  remembers 
them. 

The  pioneers  made  jellies  and  preserves  out  of  the  little 
green  apples  {see  illustrations^  pages  150-151),  which  lost 
some  of  their  acrid  quality  by  hanging  on  until  after  a  good 
frost.  There  are  those  who  still  gather  these  fruits  as  their 
parents  and  grandparents  did.  In  their  opinion  the  wild 
tang  and  the  indescribable  piquancy  of  flavor  in  jellies 
made  from  this  fruit  are  unmatched  by  those  of  any  other 
fruit  that  grows. 

THE  PLUMS 

The  genus  prunus  belongs  to  the  rose  family  and  in- 
cludes shrubs  and  trees  with  stone  fruits.  Of  the  over 
one  hundred  species,  thirty  are  native  to  North  x\mer- 
Ica;  but  ten  of  them  assume  tree  form,  and  all  but  one 
are  small  trees.  Related  to  them  are  the  garden  cherries 
and  plums,  native  to  other  countries,  and  the  peach,  the 
apricot,  and  tlie  almond,  found  in  this  country  only  in  hor- 
ticultural varieties.  The  wood  of  prunus  is  close-grained, 
solid,  and  durable,  and  a  few  of  the  species  are  ini])()rtant 
timber  trees.     The  simplest  way  to  identify  a  member  of 


150  TREES 

the  genus  is  to  break  a  twig  at  any  season  of  the  year  and 
taste  the  sap.  If  it  is  bitter  and  astringent  with  hydro- 
cyanic acid  (the  flavor  we  get  in  fresh  peach-pits  and  bitter 
almonds),  we  may  be  sure  we  have  run  the  tree  down  to  the 
genus  prunus. 


The  Wild  Red  Plum 

Prunus  Americanus,  Marsh. 

The  wild  red  or  yellow  plum  forms  dense  thickets  in  moist 
woods  and  along  river  banks  from  New  York  to  Texas  and 
Colorado.  Its  leafless,  gnarled,  and  thorny  tv/igs  are 
covered  in  spring  with  dense  clusters  of  white  bloom, 
honey-sweet  in  fragrance,  a  carnival  of  pleasure  and  profit 
to  bees  and  other  insects.  In  hot  weather  this  nectar 
often  ferments  and  sours  before  the  blossoms  fall.  The 
abundant  dry  pollen  is  scattered  by  the  wind.  The  plum 
crop  depends  more  upon  wind  than  upon  insects,  for  the 
pollination  period  is  very  brief. 

After  the  frost  in  early  autumn,  the  pioneers  of  the 
prairie  used  always  to  make  a  holiday  iij  the  woods  and 
bring  home  by  wagon-loads  the  spicy,  acid  plums  which 
crowded  the  branches  and  fairly  lit  up  the  thicket  with  the 
orange  and  red  color  of  their  puckery,  thick  skins.  In  a 
land  where  fruit  orchards  were  newly  planted,  "plum 
butter  "  made  from  the  fruit  of  nature's  orchards  was  grate- 
fully acceptable  through  the  long  winters.  Even  when 
home-grown  sorghum  molasses  was  the  only  available 
sweetening,  the  healthy  appetites  of  prairie  boys  and  girls 
accepted  this  "spread"  on  the  bread  and  butter  of  noon- 
day school  lunches,  as  a  matter  of  course. 


Sir  jHiijf  110 
FI.()Wi:i{S,   FUriT,     \M)    ODD     l,':\i.     l'\  11  KliNs    OF    THE 
S\.SSAFK\S     I'KIH 


THE  PLUMS  151 

The  Canada  Plum 

P.  nigra. y  Ait. 

The  Canada  plum  (see  illustration,  page  151)  whose  range 
dips  down  into  the  northern  tier  of  states,  is  so  near  hke  the 
previous  species  as  to  be  called  by  Waugh  a  mere  variety. 
Its  leaves  are  broad  and  large,  and  the  flowers  and  fruit 
larger.  A  peculiarity  of  blossoming  time  is  that  the 
petals  turn  pink  before  they  fall.  This  tree  furnished  the 
settler  with  a  relish  for  his  hard  fare,  and  the  horticulturist 
a  hardy  stock  on  which  to  graft  scions  of  tenderer  and  better 
varieties  of  plums.  It  is  a  tree  well  worth  bringing  in  from 
the  woods  to  set  in  a  bare  fence-corner  that  will  be  beauti- 
fied by  the  blossoms  in  spring,  and  in  late  summer  by  the 
bright  orange-colored  fruit  against  the  ruddy  foliage. 

Exotic  plums  have  greatly  enriched  our  horticulture, 
giving  us  fruits  that  vie  with  the  peach  in  size  and  luscious- 
ness.  In  New-England  gardens,  the  damsons,  green  gages 
and  big  red  plums  are  imported  varieties  of  the  woolly 
twigged,  thick-leaved  European,  P.  domestica,  which  re- 
fused utterly  to  feel  at  home  on  its  ow^n  roots  in  the  great 
middle  prairies  of  the  country.  These  European  plums 
have  found  a  congenial  home  in  the  mild  climate  of  the 
West  Coast. 

Japan  has  furnished  to  the  Middle  West  and  South  a 
hardy,  prolific  species,  P.  triflora,  generally  immune  to  the 
black  knot,  a  fungous  disease  which  attacks  native  plums. 
Crosses  between  the  Japanese  and  American  native  plums 
promise  well.  California  now  ranks  first  in  prune  raising 
as  an  industry,  with  France  a  close  second.  Prunes  are  the 
dried  fruit  of  certain  sweet,  fleshy  kinds  of  plums.     Many 


152  TREES 

cultivated  varieties  of  Japanese  plums  have  enriched  the 
horticulture  of  our  West  Coast. 

The  almond,  now  grown  commercially  in  California,  is 
the  one  member  of  the  genus  prunus  whose  flesh  is  dry  and 
woody,  and  whose  pit  is  a  commercial  nut. 


THE  CHERRIES 

Small-fruited  members  of  the  genus  prunus,  wild  and 
cultivated,  are  grouped  under  the  popular  name,  cherries, 
by  common  consent.  The  pie  cherry  of  New-England  gar- 
dens is  prunus  cerasus,  Linn.  It  often  runs  wild  from  gar- 
dens, forming  roadside  thickets,  with  small  sour  red  fruits, 
as  nearly  worthless  as  at  home  in  the  wilds  of  Europe  and 
Asia.  This  tree  has,  through  cultivation,  given  rise  to 
two  groups  of  sour  cherries  cultivated  in  America.  The 
early,  light-red  varieties,  with  uncolored  juice,  of  which  the 
Early  Richmond  is  a  familiar  type,  and  the  late,  dark-red 
varieties,  with  colored  juice,  of  which  the  English  Morello 
is  the  type. 

The  sweet  cherry  of  Europe  (P.  Avium,  Linn.)  has  given 
us  our  cultivated  sweet  cherries,  whose  fruit  is  more  or  less 
heart-shaped. 

Japan  celebrates  each  spring  the  festival  of  cherry  blos- 
som time,  a  great  national  fete,  when  the  gardens  burst 
suddenly  into  the  marvelous  bloom  of  Sakura,  the  cherry 
tree,  symbol  of  happiness,  in  which  people  of  all  classes  de- 
light. The  native  species  (P.  pseudo-Cerasus) ,  has  been 
cultivated  by  Japanese  artist-gardeners  in  the  one  direction 
of  beauty  for  centuries.  Not  in  flowers  alone,  but  in  leaf, 
in  branching  habit,  and  even  in  bark,  beauty  has  been  the 


THE  CHERRIES  153 

ideal  toward  wliicli  patience  and  skill  have  striven  success- 
fully. "Spring  is  the  season  of  the  eye,"  says  the  Japan- 
ese poet.  Of  all  their  national  flower  holidays,  cherry 
blossom  time,  in  the  third  month,  is  the  climax. 

The  Wild  Cherry 

Prunus  Pennsylvanica,  Linn. 

The  wild  red,  bird,  or  pin  cherry  grows  in  rocky  woods, 
forming  tliickets  and  valuable  nurse  trees  to  hardwoods, 
from  Newfoundland  to  Georgia,  and  west  to  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  The  birds  enjoy  the  ruddy  little  fruits  and 
hold  high  carnival  in  June  among  the  shining  leaves. 
Many  an  ugly  ravine  is  clothed  with  verdure  and  whitened 
with  nectar-laden  flowers  by  this  comparatively  worthless, 
short-lived  tree;  and  in  many  burnt-over  districts,  the  bird- 
sown  pits  strike  root,  and  the  young  trees  render  a  distinct 
service  to  forestry  by  this  young  growth,  which  is  gone  by 
the  time  the  pines  and  hardwoods  it  has  nursed  require  the 
ground  for  their  spreading  roots. 

The  Wild  Black  Cherry 

P.  scroiina,  Ehrh. 

The  wild  black  cherry  or  rum  cherry  {see  ill uslraf  ion,  page 
166) y  is  tlie  substantial  lumber  tree  of  the  genus,  whose 
ponderous  trunk  furnishes  cherry  wood,  vying  with  mahog- 
any and  rosewood  in  the  esteem  of  the  cabinet-maker,  who 
uses  cherry  for  veneer  oftener  than  for  solid  furniture. 

The  drug  trade  depends  upon  this  tree  for  a  tonic  de- 
rived from  lis  bark,  roots,  and  fruit.  Cherry  brandies, 
cordials,  and  clierr}'  bounce,  that  good  old-fashioned  home- 


154  TREES 

brewed  beverage,  are  made  from  the  heavy -clustered  fruits 
that  hang  until  late  summer,  turning  black  and  losing 
their  astringency  when  dead  ripe. 

From  Ontario  to  Dakota,  and  south  to  Florida  and 
Texas,  this  tree  is  found,  reaching  its  best  estate  in  moist, 
rich  soil,  but  climbing  mountam  canyons  at  elevations 
of  from  five  to  seven  thousand  feet.  A  worthy  shade  and 
park  tree,  the  black  cherry  is  charmingly  unconventional, 
carrying  its  mass  of  drooping  foliage  with  the  grace  of  a 
willow,  its  satiny  brown  bark  curling  at  the  edges  of 
irregular  plates  like  that  of  the  cherry  birch. 

The  Choke  Cherry 
P.  Virginiana,  Linn. 

The  choke  cherry  is  a  miniature  tree  no  higher  than  a 
thrifty  lilac  bush,  from  the  Eastern  states  to  the  Mississippi, 
but  between  Nebraska  and  northern  Texas  it  reaches 
thirty-five  feet  in  height.  The  trunk  is  always  short, 
often  crooked  or  leaning,  and  never  exceeds  one  foot 
in  diameter.  Its  shiny  bark,  long  racemed  flowers  and 
fruit,  and  the  pungent  odor  of  its  leaves  and  bark  might 
lead  one  to  confuse  it  with  a  black  cherry  sapling.  But 
there  is  a  marked  difference  between  the  two  species. 
The  choke  cherry's  odor  is  not  only  pungent,  but  rank 
and  disagreeable  besides.  The  leaf  of  the  choke  cherry 
is  a  wide  and  abruptly  pointed  oval.  The  fruit  until 
dead  ripe  is  red  or  yellow,  and  so  puckery,  harsh,  and 
bitter  that  children,  who  eat  the  black  cherries  eagerly, 
cannot  be  persuaded  to  taste  choke  cherries  a  second  time. 

Birds  are  not  so  fastidious;  they  often  strip  the  trees 
before  the  berries  darken.     It  is  probably  by  these  un- 


THE  HAWTHORNS  155 

conscious  agents  of  seed  distribution  tliat  choke-cherry 
pits  are  scattered.  From  the  Arctic  Circle  to  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  and  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Rocky  Mountains 
this  worthless  httle  choke  cherry  is  found  in  all  wooded 
regions. 

THE  HAWTHORNS 

In  the  same  rose  family  with  apples,  plums,  cherries,  and 
service-berries  is  listed  the  genus  Crataegus,  a  shrubby  race 
of  trees,  undersized  as  a  rule,  with  stiff,  zigzag  branches 
set  with  thorns.  Over  one  hundred  species  have  been 
described  by  Charles  Sargent  in  his  "Manual  of  Trees  of 
North  America,"  published  in  1905. 

The  centre  of  distribution  for  the  hawthorn  is  undoubt- 
edly the  eastern  United  States.  From  Newfoundland 
the  woods  are  full  of  them.  A  few  species  belong  to  the 
Rocky  Mountain  region,  a  few  to  the  states  farther  west. 
Europe  and  Asia  each  has  a  few  native  hawthorns. 

The  English  Hawthorn 

Crataegus  oxyacantha,  Linn. 

The  English  hawthorn  is  the  best-known  species  in  the 
world.  When  it  first  came  into  cultivation,  no  man  knows. 
Englishmen  will  tell  you  it  has  always  formed  the  hedge- 
rows of  the  countryside.  This  is  the  "blossoming  May." 
The  sweetness  of  its  flowers,  snowy  white,  or  pink,  or 
rose-colored,  turns  rural  England  into  a  garden,  while 
linnets  and  skylarks  fill  the  green  lanes  with  music. 

American  "forests  primeval"  were  swept  with  the 
woodman's  axe  before  the  hawthorns  had  iheir  chance  to 
assert  themselves  sufficiently  to  attract  the  attention  of 


156  TREES 

botanists  and  horticulturists.  The  showy  flowers  and 
fruits,  the  vivid  coloring  of  autumn  foliage,  and  the  strik- 
ing picturesqueness  of  the  bare  tree,  with  its  rigid  branches 
armed  with  menacing  thorns,  give  most  of  these  little 
trees  attractiveness  at  any  season.  They  grow  in  any 
soil  and  in  any  situation,  and  show  the  most  remarkable 
improvement  when  cultivated.  Their  roots  thrive  in 
heavy  clay.  When  young  the  httle  trees  may  be  easily 
transplanted  from  the  wild.  They  come  readily  from 
seed,  though  in  most  species  the  seed  takes  two  years  to 
germinate. 

With  few  exceptions,  the  flowers  of  our  hawthrons  are 
pure  white,  perfect,  their  parts  in  multiples  of  five — a 
family  traits  Each  flower  is  a  miniature  white  rose. 
Rounded  corymbs  of  these  flowers  on  short  side  twigs 
cover  the  tree  with  a  robe  of  white  after  the  leaves  appear. 
In  autumn  little  fleshy  fruits  that  look  like  apples,  cluster 
on  the  twigs.  Inside  the  thick  skin,  the  flesh  is  mealy 
and  sweetish  around  a  few  hard  nutlets  that  contain  the 
seed.  As  a  rule,  the  fruits  are  red.  In  a  few  species  they 
are  orange;  in  still  fewer,  yellow,  blue,  or  black. 

It  is  not  practicable  to  describe  the  many  varieties  of  our 
native  hawthorns  in  a  volume  of  the  scope  of  this  one. 
A  few  of  the  most  distinctive  species  only  can  be  included, 
but  no  one  will  ever  confuse  a  hawthorn  with  any  other 
tree. 

The  Cockspur  Thorn 

C  Crus-galli,  Linn. 

The  cockspur  thorn  is  a  small,  handsome  tree,  fifteen 
to  twenty  feet  high,  with  stiff  branches  in  a  broad  round 
head.     The  thorns  on  the  sides  of  the  twig  are  three  to 


THE  HAWTHORNS  157 

four  inches  long,  sometimes  when  old  becoming  branched* 
and  reaching  a  length  of  six  or  eight  inches.  Stout  and 
brown  or  gray,  they  often  curve,  striking  downward  as  a 
rule,  on  the  horizontal  branches.  The  leaves,  thick, 
leathery,  lustrous,  dark  green  above,  pale  beneath,  one  to 
four  inches  long,  taper  to  a  short  stout  stalk,  seeming  to 
stand  on  tiptoe,  as  if  to  keep  out  of  the  way  of  the  thorns. 
From  the  ground  up,  the  tree  is  clothed  in  bark  that  is 
bright  and  polished,  shading  from  reddish  brown  to  gray. 
The  flowers  come  late,  in  showy  clusters;  and  the  fruit 
gleams  red  against  the  reddening  leaves.  As  Vv' inter 
comes  on  the  leaves  fall  and  the  branches  are  brightened 
by  the  fruit  clusters  which  are  not  taken  by  the  birds  {see 
illustration,  page  167).  All  the  year  long  the  cockspur 
thorn  is  a  beautiful,  ornamental  tree  and  a  competent 
hedge  plant,  popular  alike  in  Europe  and  America. 

The  Scarlet  Haw 
C.  pruinosa,  K.  Koch. 

The  scarlet  haw  found  from  Vermont  to  Georgia,  and 
west  to  Missouri,  prefers  limestone  soil  of  mountain  slopes, 
and  is  more  picturesque  than  beautiful.  The  foliage  is 
distinctive;  it  is  dark,  blue-green,  smooth,  and  leathery, 
pale  beneath,  and  turns  in  autumn  to  brilliant  orange. 
In  summer  the  pale  fruit  wears  a  pale  bloom  but  at  ma- 
turity it  is  dark  purplish  red  and  shiny. 

The  Red  Haw 

C,  mollis^  Scheele 

The  red  haw  is  the  type  of  a  large  group,  ample  in  size, 
fine  in  form  and  coloring,  of  fruit  and  foliage.     This  tree 


158  TREES 

reaches  forty  feet  in  height,  its  round  head  rising  above 
the  tall  trunk,  with  stout  branchlets  and  stubby,  shiny 
thorns. 

The  twigs  are  coated  with  pale  hairs,  the  young  leaves, 
and  ultimately  the  leaf-linings  and  petioles  are  hairy,  and 
the  fruits  are  downy,  marked  with  dark  dots. 

The  only  fault  the  landscape  gardener  can  find  with 
this  red  haw,  is  that  its  abundant  fruit,  ripe  in  late  sum- 
mer, falls  in  September.  The  species  is  found  from  Ohio 
to  Dakota,  Nebraska,  and  Xansas. 

The  Scarlet  Haw 
C.  coccinea,  Linn. 

The  scarlet  haw,  native  of  the  Northeastern  states,  is  one 
of  the  oldest  native  thorns  in  cultivation.  It  is  a  favorite 
in  New  England  gardens,  because  of  its  abundant  bloom, 
deep  crimson  fruit  and  vivid  autumn  foliage.  It  is  a 
shrubby,  round-headed  tree,  with  stout  ascending 
branches,  set  with  thorns  an  inch  or  more  in  length. 

The  Black  Haw 

C,  Douglasii,  Lindl. 

In  the  West  the  black  haw  is  a  round-headed,  native  tree 
found  from  Puget  Sound  southward  through  California 
and  eastward  to  Colorado  and  New  Mexico.  It  is  a 
round-headed  tree  reaching  forty  feet  in  height,  in  moist 
soil.  Its  distinguishing  feature  is  the  black  fruit,  ripe  in 
August  and  September,  lustrous,  thin-fleshed,  sweet,  one- 
half  an  inch  long.  The  thorns  are  stout  and  sharp,  rarely 
exceeding  one  inch  in  length.     The  leathery  dark-green 


THE  SERVICE-BERRIES  150 

leaves,  one  to  four  inches  long,  commend  this  black-fruited 
thorn  of  the  West  to  the  Eastern  horticulturists.  It  has 
proved  hardy  in  gardens  to  the  Atlantic  seaboard  and  in 
Nova  Scotia. 


THE  SERVICE-BERRIES 

A  small  genus  of  pretty,  slender  trees  related  to  apples, 
and  in  the  rose  family,  has  representatives  in  every  conti- 
nent of  the  Northern  Hemisphere,  and  also  in  North  Africa. 
Their  natural  range  is  greatly  extended  by  the  efforts  of 
horticulturists,  for  the  trees  are  among  the  best  flowering 
species. 

The  Service-berry 

Amelanchier  Canadensis,  T.  &  G. 

The  Eastern  service-berry,  June-berry,  or  shad-bush,  is 
often  seen  in  parks  and  on  lawns;  its  delicate,  purple- 
brown  branches  covered  in  April,  before  the  oval  leaves  ap- 
pear, with  loose,  drooping  clusters  of  white  flowers.  {See 
illustration,  page  182.)  Under  each  is  a  pair  of  red  silky  bracts 
and  the  infant  leaves  are  red  and  silky,  all  adding  their 
warmth  of  color  when  the  tree  is  white  with  bloom.  The 
blossoms  pass  quickly,  just  about  the  time  the  shad  run  up 
the  rivers  to  spawn.  We  may  easily  trace  this  common 
name  to  the  early  American  colonists  who  frugally  fished 
the  streams  when  the  shad  were  running,  and  noted  the 
charming  little  trees  lighting  up  the  river  banks  with  their 
delicate  blossoms,  when  all  the  woods  around  them  were 
still  asleep.  In  June  the  juicy  red  berries  call  the  birds  to 
a  feast.     Then  the  little  tree  quite  loses  its  identity,  for  the 


160  TREES 

forest  is  roofed  with  green,  and  June-berries  are  quite  over- 
shadowed by  more  self-assertive  species. 

The  borders  of  woods  in  rich  upland  soil,  fron  New- 
foundland to  the  Dakotas  and  south  to  the  Gulf,  are  the 
habitat  and  range  of  this  charming  little  tree. 

The  Western  Service-berry 

A.  alnifolia,  Nutt. 

The  Western  service-berry  grows  over  a  vast  territory 
which  extends  from  the  Yukon  River  south  through  the 
Coast  Ranges  to  northern  California  and  eastward  to  Man- 
itoba and  northern  Michigan.  In  the  rich  bottom  lands 
of  the  lower  Columbia  River,  and  on  the  prairies  about 
Puget  Sound,  it  reaches  twenty  feet  in  height,  and  its 
nutritious,  pungent  fruits  are  gathered  in  quantities  and 
dried  for  winter  food  by  the  Indians.  Indeed,  the  horti- 
culturists consider  this  large  juicy  fine-flavored,  black 
berry  quite  worthy  of  cultivation,  as  it  grows  in  the  wild  to 
one  inch  in  diameter — the  average  size  of  wild  plums. 


THE  HACKBERRIES 

Fifty  or  sixty  tropical  and  temperate-zone  species  of 
hackberries  include  two  North  American  trees  which  have 
considerable  value  for  shade  and  ornamental  planting. 
One  hardy  Japanese  species  has  been  introduced;  three 
exotic  species  are  in  cultivation  in  the  South.  One  is  from 
South  Africa,  a  second  from  the  Mediterranean  basin,  and 
a  third  from  the  Orient. 

It  is  easy  to  mistake  the  hackberry  for  an  elm;  the  habits 
of  the  two  trees  lead  the  casual  observer  astray.     The  leaf 


THE  HACKBERRIES  161 

is  elm-like,  though  smaller  and  brighter  green  than  the  foli- 
age of  the  American  elm.  A  peculiarity  of  the  foliage  is 
the  apparent  division  of  the  petiole  into  three  main  ribs,  in- 
stead of  a  single  midrib.  At  base,  the  leaves  are  always 
unsymmetrical.  The  bark  is  broken  into  thick  ridges  set 
with  warts,  separated  by  deep  fissures. 

The  absence  of  terminal  buds  induces  a  forking  habit^ 
which  makes  the  branches  of  a  hackberry  tree  gnarled  and 
picturesque.  The  hackberry  is  not  familiarly  known  by 
the  inhabitants  of  the  regions  where  it  grows,  else  it 
would  more  commonly  be  transplanted  to  adorn  private 
grounds  and  to  shade  village  streets. 

The  Hackberry 

Celtis  occidentalis,  Linn. 

The  hackberry  reaches  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  feet 
in  height  in  moist  soil  along  stream  borders  or  in  marshes. 
It  is  distributed  from  Nova  Scotia  to  Puget  Sound,  and 
south  to  Florida,  Tennessee,  Missouri,  Texas,  and  New 
Mexico.  The  beauty  of  its  graceful  crown  is  sometimes 
marred  by  a  fungus  which  produces  a  thick  tufting  of  twigs 
on  the  ends  of  branches.  The  name,  "witches'  brooms" 
has  been  given  to  these  tufts.  Growths  of  similar  appear- 
ance and  the  same  name  are  produced  by  insect  injury 
on  some  other  trees. 

The  fruit  of  the  hackberry  is  an  oblong,  thin-fleshed 
sweet  berry,  purple  in  color,  one  fourth  to  one  half  inch 
long.  It  dries  about  the  solitary  seed  and  hangs  on  the 
tree  all  winter,  to  the  great  satisfaction  of  the  birds.  {See 
illustration,  page  1S3.) 

Emerson  says:    "The  wood  is  used  for  the  shafts  and 


162  TREES 

axle-trees  of  carriages,  the  naves  of  v/heels,  and  for  musical 
instruments.  The  root  is  used  for  dyeing  j^ellow,  the  bark 
for  tanning,  and  an  oil  is  expressed  from  the  stones  of  the 
fruit." 

The  best  use  we  can  make  of  the  hackberry  tree  is  to 
plant  it  for  shade  and  ornament.  It  is  easily  transplanted, 
for  the  roots  are  shallow  and  fibrous,  so  that  well-grown 
trees  may  be  moved  in  winter  time.  The  autumn  yellow 
of  the  foliage  is  wonderfully  cheerful,  and  the  warty  bark, 
checked  into  small  thick  plates,  is  interesting  at  any  sea- 
son. 

European  Nettle  Tree 

C.  Australis 

The  European  nettle  tree  is  supposed  to  have  been  the 
famous  "lotus"  of  classical  literature.  Homer  tells  of  the 
lotus-eaters  who,  when  they  tasted  the  sweet  fruit,  straight- 
way forgot  their  native  land  or  could  not  be  persuaded  to 
return.  This  innocent  tree,  against  which  the  charge  has 
never  been  proved,  bears  a  better  reputation  for  the 
qualities  of  its  wood.  It  is  as  hard  as  box  or  holly,  and 
as  beautiful  as  satin-wood  when  polished.  Figures  of 
saints  and  other  images  are  carved  out  of  it.  Hay-forks 
are  made  of  its  supple  limbs.  Rocky  worthless  land  is  set 
apart  by  law  in  some  countries  for  the  growing  of  these 
trees.  Suckers  from  the  roots  make  admirable  ramrods, 
coach-whip  stocks  and  walking-sticks.  Shafts  and  axle- 
trees  of  carriages  are  made  of  the  larger  shoots;  oars  and 
hoops  are  supplied  from  these  coppiced  trees.  From 
northern  Africa,  throughout  Europe,  and  on  to  India,  the 
tree  is  planted  for  shade,  and  its  foliage  is  used  as  fodder 
for  cattle. 


THE  MULBERRIES  168 


THE   MULBERRIES 

The  mulberry  family  includes  fifty-five  genera  and 
nearly  a  thousand  species  of  temperate-zone  and  tropical 
plants.  The  genus  ficus  alone  includes  six  hundred  species. 
Hemp,  important  for  its  fibrous,  inner  bark,  and  the  hop 
vine  are  well  known  herbaceous  members  of  the  mulberry 
family,  which  stands  botanically  between  the  elms  and  the 
nettles — strange  company,  it  would  seem,  but  justified  by 
fundamental  characteristics.  Three  genera  of  this  family 
have  tree  forms  in  America — the  mulberry,  the  Osage 
orange,  and  the  ^g.  Two  native  mulberries  and  three 
exotic  species  are  widely  cultivated  for  their  fruit,  their 
wood,  and  as  ornamental  trees.  Weeping  mulberries  are 
among  the  most  popular  horticultural  forms. 

The  Red  Mulberry 

Morus  rubra,  Linn. 

The  red  mulberry  grows  to  be  a  large  dense,  round-headed 
tree,  with  thick  fibrous  roots  and  milky  sap.  Its  alternate 
leaves,  three  to  five  inches  long,  are  variable  in  form,  often 
irregularly  lobed,  very  veiny,  usually  rough,  blue-green 
above,  pale  and  pubescent  beneath,  turning  yellow  in  early 
autumn.  The  inconspicuous  flower  spikes  are  succeeded 
by  fleshy  aggregate  fruits  like  a  blackberry,  sweet,  juicy, 
dark  purple  or  red,  each  individual  fruit  single-seeded. 
Birds  and  boys  alike  throng  the  trees  through  the  long 
period  during  which  these  berries  ripen.  They  are  hardly 
worthy  to  rank  with  the  cultivated  mulberries  as  a  fruit 
tree.     But  planted  in  poultry  yards  and  hog  pastures  the 


164  TREES 

dropping  fruits  are  eagerly  devoured  by  the  occupants  of 
these  enclosures. 

The  chief  value  of  the  tree  lies  in  the  durability  of  its 
orange-yellow  wood,  which,  though  coarse-grained,  soft  and 
weak,  is  very  durable  in  the  soil  and  in  contact  with  water. 
Hence  it  has  always  commended  itseK  to  fence-  and  boat- 
builder.  It  is  sometimes  planted  for  ornament,  but  its 
dropping  fruit  is  a  strong  objection  to  it  as  a  street  or  lawn 
tree. 

One  of  the  mulberry's  chief  characteristics  is  its  tenacity 
to  life.  Its  seeds  readily  germinate  and  cuttings,  whether 
from  roots  or  twigs,  strike  root  quickly.  Indians  dis- 
covered that  rope  could  be  made  out  of  the  bast  fibre  of 
mulberry  bark.  They  even  wove  a  coarse  cloth  out  of  the 
same  material.  The  early  settlers  of  Virginia,  who  found 
the  red  mulberry  growing  there  in  great  abundance, 
dreamed  in  vain  of  silk  culture  as  an  industry  based  upon 
this  native  tree.  Their  hopes  were  not  realized.  Silk 
culture  has  never  yet  become  a  New- World  industry. 

The  White  Mulberry 

M.  alba,  Linn. 

The  white  mulberry  is  a  native  of  northern  China  and 
Japan.  From  this  region  it  has  been  extensively  intro- 
duced into  all  warm  temperate  climates.  Its  white 
berries  are  of  negligible  character.  It  is  the  leaves  that 
give  this  oriental  mulberry  a  unique  position  in  the  econo- 
mic world.  They  are  the  chosen  food  of  silkworms.  No 
substitute  has  ever  robbed  this  tree  of  its  preeminence, 
maintained  for  many  centuries  in  its  one  field  of  useful- 
ness. 


THE  FIGS  165 

The  hardy  Russian  mulberries  are  derived  from  M.  alba. 
These  have  done  much  to  enrich  the  horticulture  of  our 
Northern  states,  but  the  parent  tree,  though  it  thrives  in 
the  eastern  United  States  and  in  the  South,  has  not  been 
the  means  of  establishing  silk  culture  on  a  paying  basis 
in  this  country. 

The  Black  Mulberry 

M,  nigra,  Linn. 

The  black  mulberry,  probably  a  native  of  Persia,  has 
large,  dark  red,  juicy  fruits,  for  which  it  is  extensively 
cultivated  in  Europe.  In  this  country  it  is  hardy  only  in 
the  Southern  and  the  Pacific  Coast  states.  It  is  the  best 
fruit  tree  of  its  family,  yet  no  mulberry  is  able  to  take 
rank  among  profitable  fruit  trees.  The  fruits  are  too  sweet 
and  soft,  and  they  lack  piquancy  of  flavor.  They  ripen  a 
few  at  a  time  and  are  gathered  by  shaking  the  trees. 

The  dark  green  foliage  of  the  black  mulberry  gives 
ample  shade  throughout  the  season.  Planted  in  the 
garden  or  in  the  border  of  the  lawn  where  no  walk  will 
be  defaced  by  the  dropping  fruits,  the  mulberry  is  a  par- 
ticularly desirable  tree  because  it  attracts  some  of  our 
most  desirable  song-birds  to  build  on  the  premises. 
Given  a  mulberry  tree  and  a  bird-bath  near  by,  and  the 
smallest  city  lot  becomes  a  bird  sanctuary  through  the 
summer  and  a  wayside  inn  for  transients  during  the 
two  migratory  seasons. 

THE  FIGS 

The  genus  ficus  belongs  to  all  tropical  countries,  and 
this  remarkable  ranf^o  accounts  for  the  six  hundred  differ- 


166  TREES 

ent  species  botanists  tave  identified.  The  rubber  plant, 
popular  in  this  country  as  a  pot  and  tub  plant,  is  one  of  the 
best-known  species.  In  its  East  Indian  forest  home  it  is 
the  *' Assam  Rubber  Tree."  It  may  begin  life  as  an  air 
plant,  fixing  its  roots  in  the  crotch  of  another  tree,  in 
which  a  chance  seed  has  lodged.  A  shock  of  aerial  roots 
strikes  downward  and  reaches  the  ground.  After  this  the 
tree  depends  upon  food  drawn  from  the  earth.  The  sup- 
porting host  tree  is  no  longer  needed.  The  young  rubber 
tree  has  by  this  time  a  trunk  stiff  enough  to  stand  alone. 

Assam  rubber,  which  ranks  in  the  market  with  the  best 
Brazilian  crude  rubber,  comes  from  the  sap  of  this  wild 
^g  tree,  Ficus  elasticus.  CKp  off  a  twig  of  your  leathery- 
leaved  rubber  plant  and  note  the  sticky  white  sap  that 
exudes.  In  the  highest  priced  automobile  tires  you  find 
the  manufactured  product. 

Dried  figs  have  always  been  an  important  commercial 
fruit.  These  imported  figs  are  from  trees  that  are  horti- 
cultural varieties  of  a  wild  Asiatic  species,  Ficus  Carica. 
Smyrna  figs  are  best  for  drying.  They  form  a  delicious, 
wholesome  sweet,  which  has  high  food  value  and  is  more 
wholesome  than  candy  for  children.  Tons  of  this  dried 
fruit  are  imported  each  year  from  the  countries  east  of 
the  Mediterranean  Sea.  Now  California  is  growing 
Smyrna  figs  successfully. 

The  banyan  tree  of  India  is  famous,  striking  its  aerial 
rootlets  downward  until  they  reach  the  ground  and  take 
root,  and  thus  help  support  the  giant,  horizontal  limbs. 
These  amazing  trees,  members  of  the  genus  ficus,  some- 
times extend  to  cover  an  acre  or  more  of  ground.  To  walk 
under  one  is  like  entering  the  darkness  of  a  forest  of  young 
trees.     By  the  clearing  away  of  most  of  these  aerial 


Str  payi-  153 
FLOWKl^S     AN'D     FKIMT    OF    TIIF     WILD     lU.  \(  K    (HKKHY 


See  page  156 
A    FRUITING    BRANCH    OF    THE    COCKSPUR    THORN 


THE  PAPAWS  167 

branches,  a  great  arbor  is  made  for  the  comfort  of  people 
in  regions  where  the  sun's  rays  are  overpowering  in  the 
middle  of  the  day. 

Our  own  ^g  trees  in  North  America  are  but  sprawhng 
parasitic  trees,  unable  to  stand  alone.  They  are  found 
only  in  the  south  of  Florida,  and  therefore  are  generally 
unknown. 

The  Golden  Fig 

Ficus  aiirea,  Nutt. 

The  golden  fig  climbs  up  other  trees  and  strangles  its 
host  with  its  coiling  stems  and  aerial  roots.  One  far- 
famed  specimen  has  grown  and  spread  like  a  banyan  tree, 
its  trunk  and  head  supported  by  secondary  stems  that 
have  struck  downward  from  the  branches.  Smooth  as  a 
beech  in  bark,  crowned  with  glossy,  beautiful  foliage,  like 
the  rubber  plants,  this  parasitic  fig  is  a  splendid  tropical 
tree,  but  the  host  that  supports  all  this  luxuriance  is 
sacrificed  utterly.  The  little  yellow  figs  that  snuggle  in 
the  axils  of  the  leaves  turn  purple,  sweet,  and  juicy  as  they 
ripen.  They  are  sometimes  used  in  making  preserves. 
An  interesting  characteristic  of  the  wood  of  the  golden 
fig  is  its  wonderful  lightness.  Bulk  for  bulk,  it  is  only 
one  fourth  as  heavy  as  water. 


THE  PAPAWS 

Two  of  the  forty-eight  genera  of  the  tropical  custard- 
apple  family  are  represented  by  a  solitary  species  each  in 
the  warmer  parts  of  the  United  States.  Important  fruit 
and  ornamental  trees  in  the  tropics  of  the  Old  World  are 


168  TREES 

included  in  this  family,  but  their  New- World  representa- 
tives are  not  the  most  valuable.  However,  they  have  a 
sufficient  number  of  family  traits  to  look  foreign  and 
interesting  among  our  more  commonplace  forest  trees; 
and  because  their  distribution  is  limited  they  are  not 
generally  recognized  in  gardens,  where  they  are  planted 
more  for  curiosity  than  for  ornament. 

The  Papaw 

Asimina  triloba,  Dunal. 

The  papaw  has  the  family  name,  custard-apple,  from 
its  unusual  fruit,  whose  flesh  is  soft  and  yellow,  like  cus- 
tard. The  shape  suggests  that  of  a  banana.  The  fruits 
hang  in  clusters  and  their  pulp  is  enclosed  in  thick  dark 
brown  skin,  wrinkled,  sometimes  shapeless,  three  to 
five  inches  long.  Dead  ripe,  the  flesh  becomes  almost 
transparent,  fragrant,  sweet,  rather  insipid,  surrounding 
flat,  wrinkled  seeds  an  inch  long.  The  fruit  is  gathered 
and  sold  in  local  markets  from  forests  of  these  papaws 
which  grow  under  taller  trees  in  the  alluvial  bottom  lands 
of  the  Mississippi  Valley.  In  summer  the  leaves  are 
tropical-looking,  having  single  blades  eight  to  twelve 
inches  long,  four  to  ^ve  inches  broad,  on  short,  thick 
stalks.  These  leaves  are  set  alternately  upon  the  twig, 
and  cluster  in  whorls  on  the  ends  of  branches.  The  flowers 
appear  with  the  leaves  and  would  escape  notice  but  for 
their  abundance  and  the  unusual  color  of  their  three 
large  membranous  petals.  At  first  these  axillary  blossoms 
are  as  green  as  the  leaves;  gradually  the  dark  pigment  over- 
comes the  green,  and  the  color  passes  through  shades  of 
brownish  green  to  dark  rich  wine-red.     The  full-grown 


THE  PAPAWS  169 

foliage  by  midsummer  has  become  very  thin  in  textm*e, 
and  lined  with  pale  bloom.  The  tree  throughout  exhales 
a  sickish,  disagreeable  odor.  The  fruit  is  improved  in 
flavor  by  hanging  until  it  gets  a  nip  of  frost. 

This  "wild  banana  tree"  is  the  favorite  fruit  tree  of 
the  negroes  in  the  Black  Belt.  Its  hardiness  is  surprising. 
From  the  Southern  states,  it  ranges  north  into  Kansas, 
Michigan,  New  York,  and  New  Jersey. 

The  Melon  Papaw 

'  Carica  Papaya,  Linn. 

The  melon  papaw  does  not  belong  to  the  custard-apple 
family,  but  it  grows  in  southern  Florida  and  throughout 
the  West  Indies,  and  has  the  name  of  our  little  "wild 
banana  tree,"  so  it  may  as  well  have  mention  here,  as  it 
is  the  sole  representative  of  the  true  Papaw  family,  and 
it  is  universally  cultivated  for  its  fruit  in  the  warm  regions 
of  the  world.  By  selection  the  fruit  has  been  improved 
until  it  ranks  as  one  of  the  most  wholesome  and  important 
of  all  the  fruits  in  the  tropics.  In  Florida  the  papaw 
grows  on  the  rich  hummocks  along  the  Indian  River,  and 
on  the  West  Coast  southward  from  Bay  Biscayne.  It 
is  very  common  on  all  the  West  Indian  Islands.  It  grows 
like  a  pahn,  with  tall  stem  crowned  by  huge  simple  leaves, 
one  to  two  feet  across,  deeply  lobed  into  three  main  divi- 
sions, and  each  lobe  irregularly  cut  by  narrow  sinuses. 
The  veins  are  very  thick  and  yellow,  and  the  hollow  leaf- 
stalks lengthen  to  three  or  four  feet.  The  bark  of  this 
tree  is  silvery  white — a  striking  contrast  with  the  lustrous 
head  of  foliage.  The  flowers  are  waxy,  tubular,  fragrant, 
turning  their  yellow  petals  backward  in  a  whorl.     On  fer- 


170  TREES 

tile  trees  the  fruits  mature  into  great  melons,  sometimes 
as  large  as  a  man's  head;  but  these  are  the  cultivated 
varieties.  Wild  papaws  rarely  exceed  four  inches  long, 
and  usually  they  are  smaller.  When  full  grown  the  fruit 
turns  to  bright  orange-yellow.  The  succulent  pulp 
separates  easily  from  the  round  seeds. 

In  the  W^est  Indies,  the  trees  often  branch  and  attain 
much  greater  size  than  in  Florida,  where  fifteen  feet  is 
the  maximum,  in  the  wilds. 

The  leaves  of  this  papaw  contain,  in  their  abundant 
sap,  a  solvent,  'papain,  which  has  the  property  of  destroy- 
ing the  connective  tissue  in  meats.  They  are  bruised  by 
the  natives  and  tough  meat,  wrapped  closely  in  them, 
becomes  tender  in  a  few  hours.  The  fruits  are  eaten  raw 
and  made  into  preserves.  Negroes  use  the  leaves  also  as  a 
substitute  for  soap  in  the  washing  of  clothes. 


THE  POND  APPLES 

The  pond  apple  (Anona  glabra,  Linn.)  is  our  only  rep- 
resentative of  its  genus  that  reaches  tree  form  and  size, 
and  it  is  the  second  of  our  native  custard-apples.  It 
comes  to  us  via  the  West  Indies,  and  reaches  no  farther 
north  than  the  swamps  of  southern  Florida.  It  is  a 
familiar  tree  on  the  Bahama  Islands.  Thirty  to  forty 
feet  high,  the  broad  head  rises  from  a  short  trunk,  less 
than  two  feet  in  diameter,  but  very  thick  compared  with 
the  wide-spreading,  contorted  branches  and  slender  branch- 
lets.  It  is  often  buttressed  at  the  base.  The  leaves 
are  oval  and  pointed,  rarely  more  than  four  inches  long, 
bright  green,  leathery,  paler  on  the  lower  surface,  plain- 


THE  POND  APPLES  171 

margined.  The  flowers  in  April  form  pointed,  triangular 
boxes  by  the  touching  of  the  tips  of  the  yellowish  white 
petals,  whose  inner  surfaces  near  the  base  have  a  bright 
red  spot. 

The  fruit,  which  ripens  in  November,  is  somewhat  heart- 
shaped,  four  to  six  inches  long,  compound  like  a  mulberry. 
The  smooth  custard-like  flesh  forms  a  luscious  mass  be- 
tween the  fibrous  core  and  the  surface,  studded  with  the 
hard  seeds.  Fragrant  and  sweet,  these  wild  pond  apples 
have  small  merit  as  fruit.  Little  effort  has  been  made  to 
improve  the  species  horticulturally.  Its  rival  species  in 
the  West  Indies  have  a  tremendous  lead  which  they  are 
likely  to  keep. 

The  Cherimoya 

Anona  Chertmolia,  Mill. 

The  cherimoya,  native  of  the  highlands  of  Central 
America,  has  long  been  cultivated,  and  its  fruit  has  been 
classed,  with  the  pineapple  and  the  mangosteen,  as  one  of 
the  three  finest  fruits  in  the  world.  Certainly  it  deserves 
high  laiiiv  among  the  fruits  of  the  tropics.  This  also  has 
been  introduced  into  cultivation  in  southern  Florida,  but 
its  culture  has  assumed  much  more  importance  in  Califor- 
nia, where  it  seems  to  feel  quite  at  home. 

The  tree  is  a  handsome  one,  with  broad  velvety  bright 
green  leaves,  deciduous  during  the  winter  months.  It 
grovvs  w^herever  the  orange  is  hardy,  and  its  fruit,  heart- 
shaped  or  oviil,  gr(^en  or  brown,  is  about  the  size  of  a  navel 
orange.  Conical  protuberances  cover  the  surface  and 
enclose  a  mass  of  white,  custard-like  pulp,  with  the  flavor 
of  the  pineapple,  in  whicli  are  imbedded  twenty  or  thirty 


172  TREES 

brown  seeds.  A  taste  for  this  tropical  pond  apple  is  as 
easily  acquired  as  for  the  pineapple,  which  has  become  uni- 
versally popular.  Every  garden  in  the  Orange  Belt  should 
have  a  cherimoya  tree  for  ornament  and  for  its  fruit. 


THE  PERSIIVIMONS 

The  persimmon  tree  of  the  Southern  woods  belongs  to 
the  ebony  family,  which  contains  some  important  fruit  and 
lumber  trees,  chiejfly  confined  to  the  genus  diospyros, 
which  has  two  representatives  among  the  trees  of  North 
America.  Doubtless  a  climate  of  longer  summers  would 
enable  our  persimmon  trees  to  produce  wood  as  hard  as 
the  ebony  of  commerce,  whose  black  heart- wood  and  thick 
belt  of  soft  yellow  sap-wood  are  the  products  of  five  different 
tropical  species  of  the  genus — two  from  India,  one  from 
Africa,  one  from  Malaysia  and  one  from  Mauritius.  The 
beautiful,  variegated  wood  called  coromandel  is  produced 
by  a  species  of  ebony  that  grows  in  Ceylon. 

Fossil  remains  of  persimmon  trees  are  found  in  the 
miocene  rocks  of  Greenland  and  Alaska,  and  in  the  later 
cretaceous  beds  uncovered  in  Nebraska.  These  prove 
that  diospyros  once  had  a  much  wider  range  than  now,  ex- 
tending through  temperate  to  arctic  regions,  whereas  now 
our  two  persimmons  and  the  Chinese  and  Japanese  species, 
are  the  only  representatives  outside  the  tropics. 

The  Persimmon 

Diospysos  Virginiana,  Linn. 

The  persimmon  will  never  be  forgotten  by  the  North- 
erner who  chances  to  visit  his  Virginia  cousins  in  the  early 


THE  PERSIMMONS  173 

autumn.  Strolling  through  the  woods  he  notes  among 
other  unfamiliar  trees  a  tall  shaft  covered  with  black  bark, 
deeply  checked  into  squarish  plates.  The  handsome  round 
head,  held  well  aloft,  bears  a  shock  of  angular  twigs  and 
among  the  glossy,  orange-red  leaves  hang  fruits  the  size 
and  shape  of  his  Northern  crabapples.  The  rich  orange- 
red  makes  it  extremely  attractive,  and  the  enthusiasm 
with  which  the  entire  population  regards  the  approaching 
persimmon  harvest  focuses  his  interest  likewise  upon  this 
unknown  Southern  fruit.  He  is  eager  to  taste  it  without 
delay,  and  usually  there  is  no  one  to  object.  Forthwith  he 
climbs  the  tree,  or  beats  a  branch  with  a  long  pole  until  a- 
good  specimen  is  obtained.  Its  thin  skin  covers  the  mel- 
low  flesh — but  the  first  bite  is  not  followed  by  a  second. 
The  fruit  is  so  puckery  that  it  almost  strangles  one. 

But  after  the  frosts  and  well  on  into  the  winter  the  per- 
simmons grow  more  sweet,  juicy,  and  delicious,  and  lose  all 
their  bitterness  and  astringency.  To  find  a  few  of  these 
sugary  morsels  in  the  depths  of  the  woods  at  the  end  of  a 
long  day's  hunting  is  a  reward  that  offsets  all  disappoint- 
ments of  an  empty  bag.  No  fruit  could  be  more  utterly 
satisfying  to  a  dry-mouthed,  leg-w^eary,  hungry  boy. 

The  opossum  is  the  chief  competitor  of  the  local  negro 
in  harvesting  the  persimmon  crop.  Individual  trees  differ 
in  the  excellence  of  their  fruit.  These  special  trees  are 
"spotted"  months  before  the  crop  is  fit  to  eat.  It  would 
seem  as  if  the  opossums  camp  under  the  best  persimmon 
trees  and  take  an  imfair  advantage,  because  they  are 
nocturnal  beasts  and  have  nothing  to  do  but  watch  and 
wait.  One  thing  solaces  the  negro,  when  he  sees  the  harvest 
diminish  through  the  unusual  industry  and  appetite  of  his 
bright-eyed,  rat-tailed  rival.     He  knows  what  brush-pile 


174  TREES 

or  hollow  tree  shelters  the  opossom,  while  he  sleeps  by 
day.  Every  persimmon  the  opossom  steals  helps  to  make 
him  fat  and  tender  for  the  darkey's  Thanksgiving  feast,  so 
it  is  only  a  question  of  patience  and  strategy  to  recoup  his 
losses  by  feasting  on  his  fat  'possum  neighbor,  and  to  boast 
to  the  friends  Vvlio  join  him  at  the  feast,  of  the  contest  of 
wits  at  which  he  came  off  victorious. 

In  summer  time  a  persimmon  tree  is  handsome  in  its 
oval  pointed  leaves,  often  six  inches  long,  with  pale  linings. 
The  flowers  that  appear  in  axillary  clusters  on  the  sterile 
trees  are  small,  yellowish  green  and  inconspicuous.  On 
the  fertile  trees  the  flowers  are  solitary  and  axillary.  The 
fruit  is  technically  a  berry,  containing  one  to  eight  seeds. 

The  following  first  impressions  of  persimmons  in  Vir- 
ginia woods  are  from  the  pen  of  a  traveler  in  the  early  part 
of  the  seventeenth  century,  whom  Pocahontas  might  have 
introduced  to  a  fruit  well  known  to  the  Indians : 

"  They  have  a  plumb  which  they  call  pessemmins,  like  to 
a  medler,  in  England,  but  of  a  deeper  tawnie  cullour;  they 
grow  on  a  most  high  tree.  When  they  are  not  fully  ripe, 
they  are  harsh  and  choakie,  and  furre  in  a  man's  mouth 
like  allam,  howbeit,  being  taken  fully  ripe,  yt  is  a  reason- 
able pleasant  fruiet,  somewhat  lushious.  I  have  seen  our 
people  put  them  into  their  baked  and  sodden  puddings; 
there  be  whose  tast  allows  them  to  be  as  pretious  as  the 
English  apricock;  I  confess  it  is  a  good  kind  of  horse 
plumb." 

"  'Simmon  beer"  and  brandy  are  made  from  the  fruit, 
and  its  seeds  are  roasted  to  use  when  coffee  is  scarce. 
The  inner  bark  of  the  tree  has  tonic  properties,  and  the 
country  folk  use  it  for  the  allaying  of  intermittent  fevers. 
The  wood  is  used  in  turnery,  for  shoe  lasts,  plane  stocks 


TIIE  PERSI^MMONS  175 

and  shuttles.  It  is  a  peculiarity  of  the  persimmon  tree 
that  ahnost  one  hundred  layers  of  pale  sap-wood,  the 
growth  of  as  many  years,  lie  outside  of  the  black  heart- 
wood,  upon  which  the  reputation  of  ebony  rests. 

The  Japanese  Persimmon 
Kaki 

The  native  persimmon  of  Japan  has  been  developed  into 
an  important  horticultural  fruit.  China  also  has  species 
that  are  fruit  trees  of  merit.  In  the  fruit  stalls  of  all 
American  cities,  the  Japanese  persimmon  is  found  in  its 
season,  the  smooth,  orange-red  skin,  easily  mistaken  for 
that  of  a  tomato  as  the  fruits  lie  in  their  boxes.  The 
pointed  cones  differ  in  form,  however,  and  the  soft  mellow 
flesh,  with  its  melon-like  seeds  and  leathery  calyx  at 
base,  mark  this  fruit  as  still  a  novelty  in  the  East. 

In  southern  California  no  garden  is  complete  without  a 
Japanese  persimmon  tree  to  give  beauty  by  its  cheerful, 
leathery,  green  leaves  and  its  rich-colored  fruits.  But  the 
beginner  will  establish  a  grave  personal  prejudice  against 
this  fruit  unless  he  wait  until  it  is  dead  ripe,  for  it  has  the 
astringent  qualities  of  its  genus.  No  fruit  is  more  delicate 
in  flavor  than  a  thoroughly  ripe  kaki,  so  soft  that  it  must  be 
eaten  with  a  spoon. 

The  Department  of  Agriculture  at  Washington  has 
established  a  nunilier  of  varieties  of  these  oriental  fruit 
trees  in  the  warmer  parts  of  the  United  States.  Our 
native  persimmons  are  being  used  as  stock  upon  which  to 
graft  the  exotics.  A  distinct  addition  to  the  fruits  of  this 
country  has  thus  been  made  and  the  public  is  fast  learning 
to  enjoy  the  luscious,  wholesome  Japanese  persimmons. 


PART  VI 
THE  POD-BEARING  TREES 

The  Locusts — The  Acacias  or  Wattles — Other  Pod* 

BEARERS 

Whenever  we  see  blossoms  of  the  sweet-pea  type  on  a 
tree  or  pods  of  the  same  type  as  the  pea's  swinging  from  the 
twigs,  we  may  be  sure  that  we  are  looking  at  a  member  of 
the  pod-bearing  family,  leguminosae^  to  which  herbaceous 
and  woody  plants  both  belong.  The  family  is  one  of  the 
largest  and  most  important  in  the  plant  kingdom,  and  its 
representatives  are  distributed  to  the  uttermost  parts  of 
the  earth.  Four  hundred  and  fifty  genera  contain  the 
seven  thousand  species  already  described  by  botanists. 
Varieties  without  number  belong  to  the  cultivated  mem- 
bers of  the  family,  and  new  forms  are  being  produced  by 
horticulturists  all  the  time.  This  great  group  of  plants  has 
fed  the  human  race,  directly  and  indirectly,  since  the  First 
Man  appeared  on  earth.  Clovers,  alfalfas,  lentils,  peas, 
beans  yield  foodstuffs  rich  in  all  the  elements  that  build 
flesh  and  bone  and  nerve  tissues.  They  take  the  place  of 
meat  in  vegetarian  dietaries. 

Besides  foods,  the  pod-bearers  yield  rubber,  dyestuffs, 
balsams,  oils,  medicinal  substances,  and  valuable  timber. 
A  long  list  of  ornamental  plants,  beautiful  in  foliage  and        ■ 
flowers,  occurs  among  them,  chiefly  of  shrub  and  tree  form.       ) 

176 


THE  LOCUSTS  177 

Last,  but  not  least,  among  their  merits  stands  the  fact 
that  leguminous  plants  are  the  only  ones  that  actually  en- 
rich the  soil  they  grow  in,  whereas  the  rest  of  the  plant 
creation  feed  upon  the  soil,  and  so  rob  it  of  its  plant  food 
and  leave  it  poorer  than  before. 

Pod-bearers  have  the  power  to  take  the  nitrogen  out  of 
the  air,  and  store  it  in  their  roots  and  stems.  The  decay  of 
these  parts  restores  to  the  soil  the  particular  plant  food 
that  is  most  commonly  lacking  and  most  costly  to  replace. 
Farmers  know  that  after  wheat  and  corn  have  robbed  the 
soil  of  nitrogen,  a  crop  of  clover  or  cow  peas,  plowed 
under  when  green  and  luxuriant,  is  the  best  restorer  of 
fertility.  It  enriches  by  adding  valuable  chemical  ele- 
ments, and  also  improves  the  texture  of  the  soil,  increasing 
its  moisture-holding  properties,  which  commercial  ferti- 
lizers do  not. 

Seventeen  genera  of  leguminous  plants  have  tree  repre- 
sentatives within  the  United  States.  These  include  about 
thirty  species.  Valuable  timber  trees  are  in  this  group. 
All  but  one,  the  yellow-wood,  have  compound  leaves,  of 
many  leaflets,  often  fernlike  in  their  delicacy  of  structure, 
and  intricacy  of  pattern.  With  few  exceptions  the  flowers 
are  pretty  and  fragrant  in  showy  clusters.  The  ripening 
pods  of  many  species  add  a  striking,  decorative  quality  to 
the  tree  from  midsummer  on  through  the  season.  Thorns 
give  distinction  and  usefulness  to  certain  of  these  trees, 
making  them  available  for  ornamental  hedges. 

THE  LOCUSTS 

Three  representatives  of  the  genus  robinia  are  among  our 
native  forest  trees.     They  are  known  in  early  summer  by 


178  TREES 

their  showy,  pea-like  blossoms  in  full  clusters,  and  their 
compound  leaves,  that  have  the  habit  of  drooping  and 
folding  shut  their  paired  leaflets  when  night  comes  on,  or 
when  rain  begins  to  fall.  The  pods  are  thin  and  small, 
splitting  early,  but  hanging  late  on  the  twigs. 

The  Black  Locust 

Robinia  Pseudacacia,  Linn. 

The  black  or  yellow  locust  is  a  beautiful  tree  in  its  youth, 
with  smooth  dark  rind  and  slender  trunk,  holding  up  a 
loose  roundish  head  of  dark  green  foliage.  Each  leaf  is 
eight  to  fourteen  inches  long,  of  nine  to  nineteen  leaflets, 
silvery  when  they  unfold,  and  always  paler  beneath.  In 
late  May,  the  tree-top  bursts  into  bloom  that  is  often  so 
profuse  as  to  whiten  the  whole  mass  of  the  dainty  foliage. 
The  nectar-laden,  white  flowers  have  the  characteristic 
"butterfly"  form,  the  banner,  wings,  and  keel  of  the  type 
pease-blossom.  {See  illustration,  "page  198).  The  bees 
lead  the  insect  host  that  swarms  about  them  as  long  as  a 
locust  flower  remains  to  offer  sweets  to  the  probing 
tongues.  Cross-fertilization  is  the  advantage  the  tree 
gains  for  all  it  gives.     The  crop  of  seeds  is  sure. 

The  angled  twigs  of  the  black  locust  break  easily  in 
windy  weather.  The  rapid  groT\i:h  of  the  limbs  spreads  the 
narrow  head,  and  its  symmetry  is  soon  destroyed,  unless 
the  tree  grows  in  a  sheltered  situation.  An  old  locust  is 
usually  an  ugly,  broken  specimen,  ragged-looking  for  three- 
fourths  of  the  year.  The  twigs  look  dead,  because  their 
winter  buds  are  buried  out  of  sight!  The  bark  is  dull, 
deeply  cut  into  irregular,  interlacing  furrows,  roughened 
by  scales  and  shreds  on  the  ridges.     In  winter  the  pods 


THE  LOCUSTS  179 

chatter  querulously,  as  the  wind  plays  among  the  tree- 
tops. 

The  black  locust  is  found  from  Pennsylvania  to  Iowa, 
and  south  from  Georgia  to  Oklahoma.  The  lumber  is 
coarse-grained,  heavy,  hard,  and  exceptionally  durable  in 
contact  with  the  soil  or  water.  This  makes  it  especially 
adaptable  for  fence  posts  and  boat  bottoms.  Crystals, 
called  raphides,  in  the  wood  cells,  take  the  edges  off  tools 
used  in  working  locust  lumber.  Yet  it  is  sought  by 
manufacturers  of  mill  cogs  and  wheel  hubs,  and  railroad 
companies  plant  the  trees  for  ties. 

The  locust-borer  has  ruined  plantations  of  this  tree  of 
late  years,  and  trees  in  the  woods  have  become  infested 
except  in  mountainous  regions  not  yet  reached  by  the  pest. 
Trees  become  distorted  with  warty  excrescences  and  the 
lumber  is  riddled  with  burrows  made  by  the  larvae.  Until 
the  entomologist  finds  a  remedy  in  some  natural  parasite 
of  the  locust-borer,  the  outlook  for  locust  culture  seems 
dark  enough.  No  insecticide  can  reach  an  enemy  that 
hides  in  the  trunk  of  the  tree  it  destroys. 

The  Clammy  Locust 

R.  viscosa,  Vent. 

The  clammy  locust  has  beautifully^  shaded  pink  flowers  in 
clusters,  each  blossom  accented  by  the  dark  red,  shiny 
calyx,  and  the  glandular  exudation  of  wax,  that  covers  all 
new  growth.  A  favorite  ornamental  locust,  this  little  tree 
has  been  widely  distributed  in  this  and  other  temperate 
countries  of  the  globe.  Its  leaves  are  delicately  feathery, 
with  the  dew-like  gum  l)rightening  them,  as  it  does  also  the 
hairy,  curling  pods  that  flush  as  they  ripen.     In  winter  the 


180  TREES 

twigs  are  ruddy.     The  trees  grow  wild  on  the  mountains  of 
the  Carolinas  and  nowhere  else. 


The  Honey  Locust 

Gleditsia  triacanthos,  Linn. 

The  honey  locust  is  a  tall  handsome  flat-topped  tree,  with 
stiff  horizontal,  often  drooping  branches,  ending  in  slim 
brown  polished  twigs,  with  three-branched  thorns,  stout 
and  very  sharp,  set  a  little  distance  above  the  leaf  scar  of 
the  previous  season.     Occasionally  a  thornless  tree  occurs. 

Inconspicuous  greenish  flowers,  regular,  bell-shaped, 
appear  in  elongated  clusters,  the  fertile  and  sterile  clusters 
distinct,  but  on  the  same  tree.  The  leaves  are  almost  full- 
grown  when  the  blossoms  appear.  Their  feathery,  fern- 
like aspect  is  the  tree's  greatest  charm  in  early  June. 
When  the  pods  replace  the  flowers  they  attract  attention 
and  admiration  as  their  velvety  surfaces  change  from  pale 
green  to  rose  and  they  curve,  as  they  lengthen,  into  all  sorts 
of  graceful  and  fantastic  forms.  The  sweet,  gummy  pulp 
of  the  honey  locust  pods  is  considered  edible  by  boys,  who 
brave  the  thorns  to  get  them.  As  the  autumn  approaches, 
the  pulp  turns  bitter,  and  dries  around  the  shiny  black 
seeds.  The  purple  pods  cling  and  rattle  in  the  wind  long 
after  the  yellow  leaves  have  fallen.  One  by  one,  they  are 
torn  oflF,  their  S-curves  tempting  every  vagrant  breeze  to 
give  them  a  lift.  On  the  crusty  surface  of  snowbanks  and 
icy  ponds,  they  are  whirled  along,  and  finally  lodge,  to  rot 
and  liberate  the  seeds.  It  takes  much  soaking  to  pre- 
pare the  adamantine  seeds  for  sprouting.  The  planter 
scalds  his  seed  to  hasten  the  orocess.     Nature  soaks, 


THE  LOCUSTS  181 

freezes,  and  thaws  them,  and  thus  the  range  of  the  honey 
locust  is  extended. 

In  the  wild,  this  tree  is  found  from  Ontario  to  Nebraska, 
and  south  to  Alabama  and  Texas.  It  chooses  rich  bottom 
lands,  but  is  found  also  on  dry  gravelly  slopes  of  the 
Alleghany  Mountains.  Trunks  six  feet  in  diameter  are 
still  in  existence,  preserved  from  the  early  forests  of  the 
Wabash  Basin  in  Indiana.  They  tower  nearly  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  feet  above  the  ground,  and  their  branches 
are  a  formidable  array  of  thorns  (see  illustration,  page  198), 
that  have  grown  into  proportions  unmatched  in  trees  of 
slender  build  and  fewer  years.  Such  a  veteran  honey 
locust  is  one  of  the  most  picturesque  figures  in  a  winter 
landscape. 

Honey  locust  wood  is  hard,  coarse-grained,  heavy,  and 
durable  in  contact  with  water  and  soil.  It  is  made  into 
wheel-hubs,  fence-posts,  and  fuel.  In  all  temperate 
countries  this  species  has  been  used  as  a  shade  and  orna- 
mental tree  and  as  a  hedge  plant. 

The  Kentucky  Coffee  Tree 

Gymnocladus  dioicus,  K.  Koch 

The  Kentucky  coffee  tree  is  the  one  clumsy,  coarse  mem- 
ber of  a  family  that  abounds  in  graceful,  dainty  species. 
Its  head  is  small  and  unsymmetrical,  above  a  trunk  that 
often  rises  free  from  limbs  for  fifty  feet  above  ground.  The 
branches  are  stiff  and  large,  bare  until  late  spring,  when  the 
buds  expand  and  the  shoots  are  tlu-own  out.  The  leaves 
are  twice  compound,  often  a  yard  in  length  and  half  as 
wide;  the  leaflets,  six  to  fourteen  on  each  of  the  five  to  nine 
divisions  of  the  main  rib.     No  other  locust  can  boast  a  leaf 


182  TREES 

numbering  more  than  one  hundred  leaflets,  each  averaging 
two  inches  in  length.  When  the  tree  turns  to  gold  in 
autumn,  it  is  a  sight  to  draw  all  eyes. 

The  flower  spray  is  large,  but  the  flowers  are  small,  im- 
perfect, salver-form,  purplish  green — the  fertile  ones  form- 
ing thick,  clumsy  pods  that  dangle  in  clusters,  and  seem  to 
weigh  down  the  stiff  branchlets.  The  fresh  pulp  used  to  be 
made  into  a  decoction  used  in  homeopathic  practice.  The 
ripe  seeds  were  used  in  Revolutionary  times  as  a  substitute 
for  coffee.  How  the  pioneer  ever  crushed  them  is  a 
puzzle  to  all  who  have  tried  to  break  one  with  a  nut- 
cracker. In  China  the  fresh  pulp  of  the  pods  of  a  sister 
species  is  used  as  we  use  soap. 

The  wood  is  not  hard,  but  in  other  respects  it  resembles 
other  locust  lumber.  It  is  sometimes  used  in  cabinet 
work,  being  a  rich,  reddish  broTvii,  with  pale  sapwood. 

The  range  of  the  coffee  tree  extends  from  New  York  to 
Nebraska,  and  south  through  Pennsylvania,  Tennessee 
and  Oklahoma,  with  bottom  lands  as  the  tree's  preference. 
Nowhere  is  this  species  common.  Occasionally,  it  is 
planted  as  a  street  tree,  in  this  country  and  abroad. 

The  Redbud 

Cercis  Canadensis,  Linn. 

The  redbud  covers  its  delicate  angled,  thomless  branch- 
lets  with  a  profusion  of  rosy-purple  blossoms,  typically 
pea-like,  before  the  leaves  appear.  The  unusual  color,  so 
abundant  where  little  redbuds  form  thickets  on  the  out- 
skirts of  a  woodland,  leads  to  a  very  general  recognition  of 
this  tree  among  people  who  go  into  the  April  woods  for 
early  violets.     It  vies  with  the  white  banner  of  the  shad- 


T.  — 

CO  4j 

O  ^ 

hJ  ^ 

m  (u 

"  111 

15  •§ 

•-I  _o 

K  — ' 

H  ^ 


>  3 


02    q 


THE  LOCUSTS  18S 

bush,  in  doing  honor  to  the  spring.  Later,  the  broad 
heart-shaped  leaves  cover  and  adorn  the  tree,  concealing 
the  dainty  tapering  pods  that  turn  to  purple  as  the  polished 
leaf  blades,  unmarred  by  insect  or  wind,  change  from  green 
to  clear  yellow  before  falling. 

Tradition  has  given  this  charming  little  locust  tree  the 
name,  "Judas-tree,"  from  its  European  cousin,  rumored  to 
have  been  the  one  upon  which  the  choice  of  Judas  fell  when 
he  went  out  and  hanged  himself.  It  is  an  unearned 
stigma,  better  forgotten,  for  it  does  prejudice  the  planter 
against  a  tree  that  should  be  on  every  lawn,  preferably 
showing  its  rosy  flowers  against  a  bank  of  evergreens. 

Its  natural  range  extends  from  New  Jersey  to  Florida 
and  west  from  Ontario  to  Nebraska  and  southward.  The 
largest  specimens  reach  fifty  feet  in  height  in  Texas  and 
Arkansas,  in  river  bottom  lands,  and  in  the  Southwest  the 
tree  is  an  abundant  undergrowth — makmg  a  beautiful 
woodland  pictiu^e  in  early  spring. 

The  Yellow-wood 
Cladrastis  lutea,  K.  Koch. 

The  yellow-wood  was  named  by  the  wife  of  a  pioneer, 
durely,  for  she  soaked  the  chips  and  got  from  them  a  clear 
yellow  dye,  highly  prized  for  the  permanent  color  it  gave  to 
her  homespun  cotton  and  woolen  cloth  that  must  have 
gone  colorless,  but  for  dyestuffs  discoverable  in  the  woods. 

The  satiny  grain  of  the  wood,  and  its  close  hard  texlure, 
commended  it  to  the  woodsman,  who  used  it  for  gun 
stocks.  But  the  tree  is  too  small  to  be  important  for  the 
lumber  it  yields. 

In  winter  the  smootli  pale  bark  of  the  "Virgilia,"  as  the 


184  TREES 

nurseryman  calls  it,  reminds  one  of  the  rind  of  the  beech. 
The  broad  rounded  head,  often  borne  on  three  or  more 
spreading  stems,  is  formed  of  drooping  graceful  branches, 
ending  in  brittle  twigs.  Summer  clothes  these  twigs  with 
a  light  airy  covering  of  compound  leaves,  of  seven  to 
eleven  broadly  oval  leaflets,  on  a  stalk  less  than  a  foot  in 
length.     In  autumn,  the  foliage  turns  yellow. 

White  flowers,  pea-like,  delicate,  fragrant,  in  clusters  a 
foot  long,  and  so  loose  that  the  flowers  seem  to  drip  from 
the  twig  ends,  drape  the  tree  in  white  about  the  middle  of 
June,  when  the  young  leaves  show  many  tints  of  green  to 
form  a  backgi'ound  for  the  blossoms. 

This  is  the  supreme  moment  of  the  year  for  one  of  the 
most  charming  of  trees,  in  any  park  that  cherishes  one  of 
these  virgilias.  In  the  wilds  of  eastern  Tennessee, 
northern  Alabama,  and  central  Kentucky  the  species  is 
found  in  scattered  places.  But  the  wild  trees  have  scant 
food  and  they  show  it.  The  full  beauty  of  the  species  is 
seen  only  in  cultivation,  as  one  sees  it  in  the  Arnold 
Arboretum,  and  in  private  gardens  near  Boston.  Even 
the  little  pods,  thin,  satiny  pointed,  add  a  harmonious  note 
of  beauty,  their  silvery  fawn  color  blending  with  the  quiet 
Quaker  drab  worn  by  the  tree  all  winter.  Fortunately, 
this  hardy  beautiful  parktree  is  easily  raisedfrom  seeds  and 
from  root  cuttings.  It  thrives  on  soil  of  many  different 
kinds.  It  has  no  bad  habits,  no  superior,  and  few  equals 
among  flowering  trees. 

THE  ACACIAS,  OR  WATTLES 

Australia  has  contributed  to  southern  California's  tree 
flora  a  large  number  of  forms  of  the  acacia  tribe,  shrubs 


THE  ACACIAS  185 

and  trees  of  great  variety  and  beauty  of  flowers  and  ever- 
green foliage.  They  are  hardy  and  perfectly  at  home,  and 
are  planted  in  such  profusion  as  to  be  the  commonest  of  all 
street  and  ornamental  trees.  The  leaves  are  set  on  a 
branching  pinnate  stem,  making  them  "twice  compound" 
of  many  tiny  leaflets,  fascicled  on  the  sides  of  the  twigs, 
alternate  on  the  terminal  shoots  of  the  season.  The  lacy, 
fern-like  foliage  of  most  acacias  would  justify  the  planting 
of  them  for  this  trait  alone.  But  the  abundant  mass  of 
bloom  usually  overwhelms  the  tree-tops,  obscuring  the 
foliage  with  a  veil  of  golden  mesh.  Sometimes  wliite,  but 
oftenest  yellow,  the  individual  flowers  are  very  small;  but 
they  crowd  in  button-like  heads  or  elongated  spikes,  set 
close  in  axillary  clusters.  In  their  native  woods  these 
trees  flower  much  less  freely  than  in  the  land  of  their  adop- 
tion. The  curling  pods  are  in  most  species  and  varieties 
ornamental,  as  they  pass  through  many  color  changes  before 
they  finally  discharge  their  seeds. 

Acacias  compose  a  genus  of  four  hundred  species,  and  an 
untold  and  constantly  increasing  number  of  cultivated 
varieties.  The  continent  of  Australia  has  the  greatest  re- 
presentation of  native  species.  Others  belong  to  Africa — 
tropical,  northern,  and  southern  regions.  Asia,  in  its 
warmer  southern  territory,  and  in  southwestern  China, 
has  many  native  acacias.  Tropical  and  temperate  South 
America,  the  West  Indies,  Central  America,  Mexico,  the 
southwestern  region  of  the  United  States,  and  the  islands 
of  the  South  Pacific,  all  have  representatives  of  this  won- 
derful and  far-scattered  genus.  There  is  no  country  in- 
terested in  horticulture  that  does  not  grow  acacias  as  orna- 
mental shrubs  and  trees,  even  if  they  must  be  grown  under 
glass  the  year  round.     In  southern  England  the  acacias. 


186  TREES 

grown  in  open  ground,  and  known  as  "tassel  trees,"  attain 
good  size. 

Valuable  lumber,  tanbarks,  dyes,  perfumes,  and  drugs 
are  yielded  by  acacias.  Gum  Arabic  is  the  dried  sap  of 
several  oriental  species,  particularly.  Acacia  Arabica,  Linn, 
of  Egypt  and  southern  Asia. 

As  a  rule,  acacias  have  slender  branches  armed  with 
spines.  Often  these  are  too  small  to  attract  notice,  or  to 
make  the  species  useful  as  a  hedge  plant.  All  spines  are 
modifications  of  the  stipules  at  the  base  of  leaf  or  leaflet. 
Thorns,  however,  are  modified  twigs,  strong,  stiff  and 
sharp,  often  branched.  The  honey  locust  shows  true 
thorns,  not  spines  or  prickles.  The  armament  of  canes  of 
blackberry  is  only  skin  deep.  This  means  of  defence  is 
best  called  "prickles." 


The  Black  Acacia 

Acacia  melanoxylon 

The  black  acacia,  called  at  home  in  Australian  woods,  the 
"black wood-tree,"  for  its  black  heart- wood,  is  a  familiar 
street  and  shade  tree  in  California.  In  narrow  parkings  it 
is  likely  to  surprise  the  planter  by  outgrowing  in  a  few 
years  the  space  allotted  to  it,  and  upheaving  both  cement 
walk  and  curb,  by  the  irresistible  force  of  its  thick  roots. 
It  is  one  of  the  large  timber  acacias,  and  even  in  the  cool 
climate  of  England  reaches  fifty  feet. 

In  suitable  situations  in  California  it  grows  much  higher, 
and  its  compact  conical  head  of  dense  evergreen  foliage, 
gives  abundant  shade  at  all  seasons.  The  flowers  are 
white  or  cream-colored,  lightening  the  yellow-green  of  the 


THE  ACACIAS  187 

new  shoots  and  the  dull,  opaque  of  the  older  leaves,  with 
abundant  clusters  in  earliest  spring.  The  succeeding 
fruits  are  curling  thin  pods  that  hang  in  brownish  sheaves, 
giving  the  tree  a  rusty  look.  Each  seed  is  rimmed  with  a 
frill  of  terra  cotta  hue  that  serves  as  a  wing  for  its  flight, 
when  detached  by  the  wind.  The  roots  send  up  suckers 
and  the  seeds  are  quick  to  grow.  So  any  one  can  have 
black  acacias  with  little  trouble  or  expense.  Its  shedding 
of  leaves  and  pods  makes  much  litter,  however,  a  trait 
sometimes  overlooked  which  seriously  duninishes  its  de- 
sirability as  a  street  and  shade  tree. 

The  Silver  Wattle 

A.  dealbata 

The  silver  wattle  of  nursery  catalogues  is  named  for  its 
abundant,  silvery-pubescent,  feathery  foliage.  Its  flow- 
ers— fluffy  golden  balls,  small  but  abundant — make  this  a 
wonderfully  showy  tree. 

Sea-green  and  turquoise-blue  leaves,  with  abundant 
canary-yellow  bloom,  are  traits  of  many  different  acacias 
in  cultivation,  all  of  which  are  rapid  growers,  and  soon  re- 
pay the  planter  who  wants  quick  results.  From  being 
mere  ornaments  they  rise  to  the  stature  of  shade  trees,  and 
merely  multiply  the  charms  that  made  them  admired 
when  young.  Varieties  with  sharp  spines  are  employed  as 
hedge  plants.  Curious  leaf  forms  and  unusual,  edgewise 
position  of  the  foliage,  make  us  wonder  at  some  of  the 
glorious  "golden  wattles"  and  "knife-leaved  acacias," 
that  bring  us  glimpses  of  the  forests  of  Austraha  and  other 
strange  far  countries. 


188  TREES 


OTHER  POD-BEARERS 

The  Mesquite 

Prosopis  juliflora,  DC. 

The  mesquite  or  honey  pod  is  one  of  the  wonderful 
plants  of  the  arid  and  semi-arid  regions  from  Col- 
orado and  Utah  to  Texas  and  southern  California. 
At  best  it  is  a  tree  sixty  feet  high  along  the  rivers  of 
Arizona.  In  the  higher  and  more  desert  stretches  it  is 
stunted  to  a  sprawling  shrub,  with  numerous  stems  but 
a  few  feet  high.  Its  leaves  are  like  those  of  our  honey 
locust  but  very  much  smaller,  and  the  tree  furnishes  little 
shade.  The  bark  of  the  trunk  is  thick,  dark  reddish 
brown,  shallowly  fissured  between  scaly  ridges.  In 
winter  the  tree  looks  dead  enough,  but  the  young 
shoots  clothed  with  tender  green  bring  it  to  life  in  early 
spring,  and  the  greenish  fragrant  flowers,  thickly  set  in 
finger-like  clusters,  appear  in  successive  crops  from  May  to 
July.  These  are  succeeded  by  pods  four  to  nine  inches 
long  in  drooping  clusters,  each  containing  ten  to  twenty 
beans. 

Not  its  beauty  of  leaf  and  blossom  but  its  usefulness  is 
what  makes  this  tree  almost  an  object  of  worship  to  desert 
dwellers,  red  men  and  white.  The  long  fat  pods  supply 
Mexicans  and  Indians  with  a  nutritious  food,  green  or  ripe. 
Cattle  feed  upon  the  young  shoots  and  thrive,  when  other 
forage  is  scant  or  utterly  lacking.  The  fuel  problem  of  the 
desert  is  solved  by  the  mesquite  in  a  way  that  is  a  great 
surprise  to  the  newcomer.     His  sophisticated  neighbor 


OTHER  POD-BEARERS  189 

takes  him  on  a  wood-gathering  expedition.  Stopping 
where  a  shrubby  mesquite  sprawls,  he  liitches  his  team  to  a 
chain  or  rope  that  Lays  hold  of  the  trunk,  and  hauls  the 
plant  out  by  its  roots.  And  what  roots  the  mesquite  has 
developed  in  its  search  for  water!  There  is  a  central  tap 
root  that  goes  down,  down,  sometimes  sixty  feet  or  more. 
Secondary  roots  branch  out  in  all  directions,  interlock, 
thicken,  and  form  a  labyrinth  of  woody  substance,  in 
quantity  and  quality  that  makes  the  timber  above  ground 
a  negligible  quantity.  This  wood  is  cut  into  building  and 
fencing  materials — two  great  needs  in  the  desert.  The 
waste  makes  good  fuel,  and  every  scrap  is  precious. 
Posts,  railroad  ties,  frames  for  the  adobe  houses,  furniture, 
fellies  of  wheels,  paving  blocks,  and  charcoal  are  made  of 
this  wonderful  tree's  root  system.  A  gum  resembling  gum- 
arabic  exudes  from  the  stems. 


The  Screw-bean 

P.  puhescenSy  Benth. 

The  screw-bean  or  screw-pod  mesquite  is  a  small  slender- 
trunked  tree  with  sharp  spines  at  the  bases  of  the  hoary 
foliage.  The  marked  distinction  between  this  species  and 
the  preceding  one  is  in  the  fruit,  which  makes  from  twelve 
to  twenty  turns  as  it  matures,  and  forms  when  ripe  a 
narrow  straight  spiral,  one  to  two  inches  long;  but  when 
drawn  out  like  a  coiled  spring  the  pod  is  shown  to  be  more 
than  a  foot  in  length.  These  sweet  nutritious  pods  are  a 
most  useful  fodder  for  range  cattle,  and  the  wood  is  used 
for  fencing  and  fuel.  This  tree  grows  from  southern  Utah 
and  Nevada  through  New  Mexico  and  Arizona  into  San 


190  TREES 

Diego  County,  California,  western  Texas  and  northern 
Mexico. 

The  Palo  Verde  Acacia 

Cercidium  Torreyanum,  Sarg. 

The  palo  verde  is  another  green-barked  acacia  whose 
leaves  are  almost  obsolete.  Miniature  honey-locust 
leaves  an  inch  long  unfold,  a  few  here  and  there  in  March 
and  April,  but  they  are  gone  before  they  fully  mature,  and 
the  leaf  function  is  carried  on  entirely  by  the  vivid  green 
branches.  Clustered  flowers,  like  little  yellow  roses, 
cover  the  branches  in  April,  and  the  pointed  pods  ripen  and 
fall  in  July. 

In  the  Colorado  desert  of  southern  California,  in  the 
valley  of  the  lower  Gila  River  in  Arizona,  on  the  sides  of 
low  canyons  and  on  desert  sandhills  into  Mexico,  this  small 
tree,  with  its  multitude  of  leafless,  ascending  branches,  is 
one  of  the  brightest  features  on  a  hopelessly  dun-colored 
landscape. 

The  Jamaica  Dogwood 

Icthyomethia  Piscipula,  A.  S.  Hitch. 

The  Jamaica  dogwood  is  a  West  Indian  tree  that  grows 
also  in  southern  Florida  and  Mexico.  It  is  one  of  the 
commonest  tropical  trees  on  the  Florida  West  Coast  from 
the  shores  of  Bay  Biscayne  to  the  Southern  Keys.  The 
leaves  are  four  to  nine  inches  long,  with  leaflets  three  to 
four  inches  in  length,  deciduous,  vivid  green,  making  a  tree 
fifty  feet  high  an  object  of  tropical  luxuriance.  Its  beauty 
is  greatly  enhanced  in  May  by  the  opening  of  the  pink,  pea- 
like blossoms  that  hang  in  drooping  clusters  a  foot  or  more 


OTHER  POD-BEARERS  191 

in  length.     The  necklace-like  pods  are  frilled  on  four  sides 
with  tliin  papery  wings. 

The  wood  of  this  tree  is  very  durable  in  contact  with 
water,  besides  being  heavy,  close-grained,  and  hard.  It  is 
locally  used  in  boat-building,  and  for  fuel  and  charcoal.  All 
parts  of  the  tree,  but  especially  the  bark  of  the  roots,  con- 
tain an  acid  drug  of  sleep-inducing  properties.  In  the 
West  Indies  the  powdered  leaves,  young  branches,  and  the 
bark  of  the  roots  have  long  been  used  by  the  natives  to 
stupefy  fish  they  try  to  capture. 

The  Horse  Bean 

Parkinsonia  aculeata,  Linn. 

The  horse  bean  or  retama,  native  to  the  valleys  of  the 
lower  Rio  Grande  and  Colorado  River,  is  a  small  graceful 
pod-bearing  tree  of  drooping  branches  set  with  strong 
spines,  long  leaf -stems,  branching  and  set  with  many  pairs 
of  tiny  leaflets. 

The  bright  yellow,  fragrant  flowers  are  almost  perennial. 
In  Texas  the  tree  is  out  of  bloom  only  in  midwinter.  In  the 
tropics,  it  is  ever-blooming.  The  fruit  hangs  in  graceful 
racemes,  dark  orange-brown  in  color,  and  compressed  be- 
tween the  remote  beans.  As  a  hedge  and  ornamental 
garden  plant,  this  tree  has  no  equal  in  the  Southwest.  It 
is  met  with  in  cultivation  in  most  warm  countries. 

The  Texas  Ebony 

Zigia  flexicaulis,  Sudw. 

The  Texas  ebony  is  a  beautiful,  acacia-like  tree  of  south- 
ern Texas  and  Mexico.     One  of  the  commonest  and  most 


192  TREES 

beautiful  trees  on  the  bluffs  along  the  coast,  south  of  the 
Rio  Grande.  Its  leaves  are  feathery,  fern-like,  its  flowers 
in  creamy  clusters,  its  pods  thick,  almost  as  large  as  those 
of  the  honey  locust.  The  seeds  are  palatable  and  nutri- 
tious, green  or  ripe.  Immature,  the  pods  are  cooked  like 
string  beans;  ripe,  they  are  roasted,  and  the  pods  them- 
selves are  ground  and  used  as  a  substitute  for  coffee. 

The  wood  is  valuable  in  fine  cabinet  work,  and  because 
it  is  almost  indestructible  in  contact  with  the  ground,  it  is 
largely  used  for  fence  posts.  It  makes  superior  fuel.  Besides 
being  more  valuable  than  any  other  tree  of  the  Rio  Grande 
Valley,  though  it  rarely  exceeds  thirty  feet  in  height,  it  is 
worthy  of  the  attention  of  gardeners  as  well  as  foresters  in 
all  warm  temperate  countries.  Prof.  Sargent  calls  it  the 
finest  ornamental  tree  native  to  Texas. 

The  Frijolito 

Sophora  secundiflora,  DC. 

The  frijolito  or  coral-bean  is  a  small,  slender  narrow- 
headed  tree,  with  persistent,  locust-like  leaves,  fragrant 
violet-blue  flowers,  and  small  one-sided  racemes.  The 
pods  are  silky  white,  pencil-like,  constricted  between  the 
bright  scarlet  seeds.  The  tree  grows  wild  in  canyons  in 
southern  Texas  and  New  Mexico,  forming  thickets  or 
small  groves  in  low  moist  limestone  soil  and  stream  bor- 
ders. It  is  a  close  relative  of  the  famous  pagoda  tree  of 
Japan,  S.  Japonica,  universally  cultivated;  and  it  deserves 
to  be  a  garden  tree  throughout  the  Southern  states. 


PART  VII 
DECIDUOUS  TREES  WITH  WINGED  SEEDS 

The  Maples — The  Ashes — The  Elms 

THE  IVIAPLES 

A  single  genus,  cicer,  includes  from  sixty  to  seventy 
species,  widely  distributed  over  the  Northern  Hemisphere. 
A  single  species  goes  south  of  the  equator,  to  the  mountains 
of  Java.  All  produce  pale  close-grained,  fairly  hard  wood, 
valued  in  turnery  and  for  the  interior  finish  of  houses.  The 
clear  sap  of  some  American  species  is  made  into  maple 
sugar. 

The  signs  by  which  we  may  know  a  member  of  the  maple 
family  are  two:  opposite,  simple  leaves,  palmately  veined 
and  lobed;  and  fruits  in  the  form  of  paired  samaras,  com- 
pressed and  drawn  out  into  large  thin  wings.  No  amount 
of  improvement  changes  these  family  traits.  No  other 
tree  has  both  leaves  and  fruits  like  a  maple's. 

The  distribution  of  genus  acer  is  interesting.  The  origi- 
nal home  of  the  family  is  in  the  Far  East.  In  China 
and  Japan  we  may  reckon  up  about  thirty  indigo  maples, 
while  only  nine  are  native  to  North  America.  Of  these, 
five  are  in  the  eastern  half  of  the  continent,  three  in  the 
West,  and  one  grows  indifferently  on  both  sides  of  the 
Great  Divide. 

198 


194  TREES 

The  Sugar  Maple 

Acer  saccharum,  Marsh. 

The  sugar  maple  (see  illustration,  'page  198-199)  is  eco- 
nomically the  most  important  member  of  its  family  in  this 
country.  As  an  avenue  and  shade  tree  it  is  unsurpassed. 
It  is  the  great  timber  maple,  whose  curly  and  birds-eye 
wood  is  loved  by  the  cabinet-maker;  and  whose  sap  boiled 
down,  yields  maple  sugar — a  delicious  sweet,  with  the 
distinctive  flavor  beloved  by  all  good  Americans.  In 
October  the  sugar  maple  paints  the  landscape  with  yellow 
and  orange  and  red.  Its  firm  broad  leaves,  shallowly  cleft 
into  five  lobes,  are  variously  toothed  besides.  The  flowers 
open  late,  hanging  on  the  season's  shoots  in  hairy  yellow 
clusters.  The  key  fruits  are  smooth  and  plump,  with 
wings  only  slightly  diverging.  They  are  shed  in  midsummer. 

Hard  maple  wood  outranks  all  other  maple  lumber, 
though  the  curly  grain  and  the  bird's-eye  are  accidental 
forms  rarely  found.  Flooring  makes  special  demands 
upon  this  wood.  Much  is  used  in  furniture  factories;  and 
small  wares — shoe  lasts,  shoe  pegs  and  the  like — consume  a 
great  deal.  As  fuel,  hard  maple  is  outranked  only  by 
hickory.  Its  ashes  are  rich  in  potash  and  are  in  great  de- 
mand as  fertilizer  in  orchards  and  gardens. 

The  living  tree,  in  the  park,  on  the  street,  casting  its 
shade  about  the  home,  or  glowing  red  among  the  trees  of 
the  woods,  is  more  valuable  than  its  lumber.  Slow-grow- 
ing, strong  to  resist  damage  by  storm,  clean  in  habit  and 
beautiful  the  year  round — this  is  our  splendid  rock  maple. 
Rich,  indeed,  is  the  city  whose  early  inhabitants  chose  it  as 
the  permanent  street  tree. 


THE  JSIAPLES  195 

The  Black  Maple 
A.  nigrum,  Michx. 

The  black  maple  is  so  like  the  sugar  maple  that  they  are 
easily  confused,  but  its  stout  branchlets  are  orange-colored, 
the  leaves  are  smooth  and  green  on  both  sides,  scantly 
toothed,  and  they  droop  as  if  their  stems  were  too  weak  to 
hold  up  the  blades.  The  keys  spread  more  widely  than 
those  of  the  sugar  maple. 

The  black  maple  is  the  sugar  maple  of  South  Dakota 
and  Iowa.  It  becomes  rarer  as  one  goes  east.  It  is  an 
admirable  lumber  tree,  as  well  as  a  noble  street  and  shade 
tree. 

Two  soft  maples  are  found  in  the  eastern  part  of  the 
country,  their  sap  less  sweet,  their  wood  softer  than  the 
hard  maples,  and  their  fitness  for  street  planting  corres- 
pondingly less. 

The  Red  Maple 

A.  ruhrum,  Linn. 

The  red  maple  is  a  lover  of  swamps.  It  thrives, 
however,  on  hillsides,  if  the  soil  be  moist;  and  is  planted 
widely  in  parks  and  along  village  streets.  In  beauty  it 
excels  all  other  maples.  In  early  spring  its  swelling  buds 
glow  like  garnets  on  the  brown  twigs  {see  illustrationsy 
pages  198-199).  Theopeningflowershave  red  petals,  and  the 
first  leaves,  which  accompany  the  early  bloom,  are  red. 
In  May  the  dainty  fiat  keys,  in  clusters  on  their  long, 
flexible  stems,  are  as  red  as  a  cock's  comb,  and  beautiful 
against  the  bright  green  of  the  new  foliage.  In  early 
September  in  New  England,  a  splash  of  red  in  tlie  woods. 


196  TREES 

across  a  swamp,  is  sure  to  be  a  scarlet  maple  that  suddenly 
declares  its  name.  Against  the  green  of  a  hemlock  forest 
these  maples  show  their  color  like  a  splash  of  blood.  The 
tree  is  gorgeous. 

In  winter  the  lover  of  the  woods,  re-visiting  the  scenes 
of  his  summer  rambles,  knows  the  scarlet  maple  by  the 
knotty,  full-budded  twigs  which  gleam  like  red-hot  needles 
set  with  coral  beads,  against  the  clean-limbed,  gray-trunked 
tree.     The  red  maple  never  quite  forgets  its  name. 

As  a  street  tree,  it  makes  rapid  progress  when  it  once 
becomes  established,  though  it  is  apt  to  stand  still  for  a 
time  after  being  transplanted.  Its  branches  are  short, 
numerous,  and  erect,  making  a  round  head,  admirably 
adapted  to  the  resistance  of  heavy  winds.  It  is  particu- 
larly suited  to  use  in  narrow  streets. 

The  Soft  Maple 
A.  saccharinum,  Linn. 

The  soft  maple  or  silver  maple  (see  illustration,  page  199) 
has  a  white-lined  leaf,  cleft  almost  to  the  midrib  and  each 
division  again  deeply  cut.  It  is  quick  and  ready  to  grow, 
and  has  been  widely  planted  as  a  street  tree,  especially  in 
prairie  regions  of  uncertain  rainfall.  It  is  one  of  the 
poorest  of  trees  for  street  planting,  because  it  has  a  sprawl- 
ing habit  and  weak  brittle  wood.  The  heavy  limbs  have 
great  horizontal  spread,  and  are  easily  broken  by  ice  and 
windstorms.  When  planted  on  streets,  they  require 
constant  cutting  back  to  make  them  even  safe.  Thick 
crops  of  suckers  rise  from  the  stubs  of  branches,  but  the 
top  thus  formed  is  neither  beautiful  nor  useful. 

Wier's  weeping  maple,  a  cut-leaved,  drooping  variety 


THE  IVIAPLES  197 

of  this  silver  maple,  is  often  seen  as  a  lawn  tree,  imitating 
the  habit  of  the  weeping  willow. 

The  Oregon  Maple 

A.  macrophylhwi,  Pursh. 

The  Oregon  maple  grows  from  southern  Alaska  to  Lower 
California,  along  the  banks  of  streams.  The  great  leaves, 
often  a  foot  in  diameter,  on  blades  of  equal  length,  are  the 
distinguishing  marks  of  this  stout-limbed  tree,  that  grows 
in  favorable  soil  to  a  height  of  a  hundred  feet.  In  southern 
Oregon  it  forms  pure  forest,  its  huge  limbs  forming  mag- 
nificent, interlacing  arches  that  shut  out  the  sun  and  make 
a  wonderful  cover  for  ferns  and  mosses  far  below.  The 
wood  of  this  tree  is  the  best  hard-wood  lumber  on  the 
West  Coast. 

The  Vine  Maple 

A.  circinatum,  Pursh. 

The  vine  maple  reminds  one  of  the  hanas  of  tropical 
woods,  for  it  has  not  sufficient  stiffness  to  stand  erect. 
It  grows  in  the  bottom  lands  and  up  the  mountain  sides, 
but  always  following  water-courses,  from  British  Columbia 
to  northern  CaKfornia.  Its  vine-Hke  stems  spring  up  in 
clusters  from  the  ground,  spreading  in  wide  curves,  and 
these  send  out  long,  slender  twigs  which  root  when  they 
touch  the  ground,  thus  forming  impenetrable  thickets, 
often  many  acres  in  extent. 

The  leaf  is  almost  circular  and  cut  into  narrow  equal 
lobes  around  the  margin;  green  in  midsummer,  it  changes 
to  red  and  gold  in  autumn,  and  the  woodsman,  almost 


198  TREES 

worn  out  with  the  labor  of  getting  through  the  maze  these 
trees  form,  must  dehght,  when  he  stops  to  rest,  in  the 
autumn  glory  of  this  wonderful  ground  cover. 

These  little  maples  lend  a  wonderful  charm  to  the  edges 
of  forest  highways  in  the  Eastern  states.  Like  the  horn- 
beams, hazel  bushes,  and  ground  hemlock,  they  are  lovers 
of  the  shade;  and  they  fringe  the  forest  with  a  shrubbery 
border. 

TTie  Striped  Maple 

A.  Pennsylvanicum,  Linn. 

The  striped  maple  is  quickly  recognized  by  the  pale 
white  lines  that  streak  in  delicate  patterns  the  smooth 
green  bark  of  the  branches.  The  leaves  are  large  and 
finely  saw-toothed,  with  three  triangular  lobes  at  the  top. 
The  yellowish  bell-flowers  hang  in  drooping  clusters^ 
followed  by  the  smooth  green  keys,  in  midsummer.  Thi& 
tree  is  called  "Moosewood,"  for  moose  browse  upon  it. 

The  shrubbery  border  of  parks  is  lightened  in  autumn 
by  the  yellow  foliage  of  this  little  tree,  and  in  winter  the 
bark  is  very  attractive.  "  Whistle  wood "  is  the  name 
the  boys  know  this  tree  by,  for  in  spring  the  bark  slips 
easily,  and  they  cut  branches  of  suitable  size  for  whistles. 

The  Mountain  Maple 

A.  spicatum.  Lam. 

The  mountain  maple  is  a  dainty  shrub  with  ruddy  stems, 
large,  three-lobed  leaves,  erect  clusters  of  yellow  flowers 
and  tiny  brown  keys.  It  follows  the  mountains  from 
New  England  to  northern  Georgia,  and  from  the  Great 
Lakes  extends  to  the  Saskatchewan. 


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SUGAR    MAPLE 
Maple  sugar  is  made  in  February;  the  trees  bloom  in  May;  their 
seeds  ripen  in  October 


THE    1{EI)    MAPLES    PISTILLATE    {left)    AXI) 
STAMINATE    {ri,jht)    ELOWEKS 


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THE  MAPLES  199 

The  Dwarf  Maple 

A.  glabrum,  Torr. 

The  dwarf  maple  ranges  plentifully  from  Canada  to 
Arizona  and  New  Mexico.  Its  leaves,  typically  tliree- 
lobed  and  cut-toothed,  vary  to  a  compound  form  of  three 
coarse-toothed  leaflets.  The  winged  keys  are  ruddy  in 
midsummer,  lending  an  attractive  dash  of  color  to  the 
woods  that  border  high  mountain  streams. 

Very  common  in  cultivation  are  the  Japanese  maples — 
miniature  trees,  bred  and  cultivated  for  centuries,  won- 
derful in  the  variations  in  form  and  coloring  of  their 
leaves.  Tiny  maple  trees  in  pots  are  often  very  old. 
Some  leaves  are  mere  skeletons. 

The  Japanese  people  are  worshippers  of  beauty  and 
they  delight  particularly  in  garden  shows.  In  the  autumn, 
when  the  maples  have  reached  perfection,  the  populace 
turns  out  in  holiday  attire  to  celebrate  a  grand  national 
fete.  A  sort  of  aesthetic  jubilee  it  is,  like  the  spring 
jubilee  of  the  cherry  blossom  To  each  careful  gardener 
who  has  patiently  toiled  to  bring  his  maples  to  perfection, 
it  is  sufficient  reward  that  the  people  make  this  annual 
pilgrimage  to  view  them. 

The  Box  Elder 

A.  Negundo,  Linn. 

The  box  elder  is  the  one  maple  whose  leaves  are  always 
cleft  to  the  stem,  making  it  compound  of  irregularly 
toothed  leaflets.  The  clusters  of  flattened  keys,  which 
hang  all  winter  on  the  trees,  declare  the  kinship  of  this 
tree  to  the  maples. 


wo  TREES 

Fast-growing,  hardy,  willing  to  grow  in  treeless  regions, 
this  tree  has  spread  from  its  eastern  range  throughout  the 
plains,  where  shelter  belts  were  the  first  needs  of  the 
settlers.  Pretty  at  first,  these  box  elders  are  soon  broken 
down  and  unsightly.  They  should  be  used  only  as  tem- 
porary trees,  alternating  with  elms,  hard  maples,  and 
ashes.  Where  they  are  neglected,  or  continue  to  be 
planted,  the  character  of  the  town  or  the  premises  must 
be  cheap  and  ugly. 

The  Norway  Maple 

A.  flatanoidesy  Linn. 

The  Norway  maple  is  counted  the  best  maple  we  have 
for  street  planting.  Broad,  thin  leaves,  three-lobed  by 
wide  sinuses,  cover  with  a  thick  thatch  the  rounded  head 
of  the  tree.  Green  on  both  sides,  thin  and  smooth,  these 
leaves  seem  to  withstand  remarkably  the  smoke,  soot,  and 
dust  of  cities,  and  also  the  attacks  of  insects.  The  keys 
are  large,  wide-winged,  set  opposite,  the  nutlets  meeting 
in  a  straight  line.  These  pale  green  key  clusters  are 
very  handsome  among  the  green  leaves  in  summer — the 
tree's  chief  ornament  until  the  foliage  mass  turns  yellow 
in  autumn.  A  peculiarity  of  the  Norway  maple  is  the 
milky  juice  that  starts  from  a  broken  leaf -stem. 

The  Sycamore  Maple 

A.  pseudo-platanus,  Linn. 

The  sycamore  maple  is  another  European  immigrant, 
whose  broad  leaf  is  thick  and  leathery  in  texture,  and 
pale  underneath.     Its  late-opening  flowers  are  borne  in 


THE  ASHES  201 

long  racemes,  followed  by  the  small  key  fruits  which 
cling  to  the  twigs  over  winter,  making  the  tree  look  dingy 
and  untidy.  This  tree  has  not  the  hardiness  nor  the  com- 
pact form  of  the  Norway  maple,  and  it  is  subject  to  the 
attack  of  borers. 

It  is  the  "sycamore"  of  Europe,  famed  as  a  lumber 
and  an  avenue  tree  abroad,  but  with  us  it  proves  short- 
lived, and  we  have  no  reason  for  clioosing  it.  The  copious 
seed  production  of  the  far  preferable  Norway  maple  puts 
it  within  the  reach  of  all. 

THE  ASHES 

Few  large  trees  in  our  American  woods  have  their 
leaves  set  opposite  upon  the  twig.  Still  fewer  of  the 
trees  with  compound  leaves  show  this  arrangement.  Con- 
sult the  first  broad-leaved  tree  you  meet,  and  the  chances 
are  tliat  its  leaves  are  set  alternately  upon  the  twigs. 
There  is  a  multitude  of  families  in  this  class;  but  if 
the  leaves  are  paired  and  set  opposite,  we  narrow  the 
families  to  a  very  few.  Are  the  leaves  simple.'^  Then 
the  tree  may  be  a  maple  or  a  dogwood,  or  a  viburnum. 
Are  the  leaves  opposite  and  compound?  Then  you  have 
one  of  two  families.  Are  the  leaflets  clustered  on  the 
end  of  the  leaf-stalk?  Then  the  tree  is  a  buckeye  or  a 
horse  chestnut — members  of  the  buckeye  family.  Are 
the  leaflets  set  along  the  sides  of  the  central  stem?  Then 
the  tree  is  an  ash.  A  few  exceptions  may  be  discovered, 
but  the  rule  holds  in  the  general  forest  area  of  North 
America. 

Ash  trees  have  lance-shaped,  winged  seeds,  borne  in 
profuse  clusters,  and  often  held  well  into  the  winter.     But 


202  TREES 

there  is  no  season  when  the  leaf  arrangement  cannot  be  at 
once  determined  by  the  leaf  scars,  prominent  upon  the 
twigs;  and  under  the  tree  there  will  always  be  remnants 
of  the  cast-off  foliage,  to  show  that  it  is  compound. 

Ash  trees  are  usually  large  and  stately  when  full  grown, 
with  trunks  clothed  in  smooth  bark,  checked  into  small, 
often  diamond-shaped  plates.  This  gives  the  trees  a 
trim,  handsome  appearance  in  the  winter  woods.  As 
shade  trees,  ashes  are  very  desirable,  and  they  are  valuable 
for  their  timber. 

The  near  relatives  of  ashes  surprise  us.  They  belong  to 
the  olive  family,  whose  type  is  the  olive  tree  of  the  Medi- 
terranean region,  now  extensively  cultivated  in  California 
for  its  fruit.  Privets,  lilacs,  and  forsythias,  favorites  in 
the  gardens  of  all  countries  that  have  temperate  climates, 
are  cousins  to  the  ash  tree.  One  of  its  most  charming 
relatives  is  the  little  fringe  tree  of  our  own  woods.  Thirty 
species  of  ash  are  known;  half  of  that  number  inhabit 
North  America.  There  are  ash  trees  in  every  section  of 
our  country  except  the  extremes  of  latitude  and  altitude. 
Tropical  ash  trees  are  native  to  Cuba,  North  Africa,  and 
the  Orient. 

The  White  Ash 

Fraxinus   Americana,    Linn. 

The  white  ash  is  one  of  the  noblest  trees  in  the  American 
forest,  the  peer  of  the  loftiest  oak  or  walnut.  When  young 
it  is  slim  and  graceful,  but  it  grows  sturdier  as  it  approaches 
maturity,  lifting  stout,  spreading  branches  above  a  tall, 
massive  trunk.  In  the  forest  the  head  is  narrow,  but  in 
the  open  the  dome  of  a  white  ash  is  as  broad  and  sym- 
metrical as  that  of  a  white  oak.     A  gray  rind  covers  the 


THE  ASHES  203 

young  branches  and  the  bark  is  gray.  The  fohage  has 
white  lining  and  each  of  the  seven  leaflets  has  a  short  stalk. 
These  are  all  characters  that  distinguish  the  white  ash 
from  other  species  and  enable  one  to  name  it  at  a 
glance.  In  the  South  the  white  ash  is  undersized  and  the 
wood  is  of  poor  quality.  In  the  Northeastern  and  Central 
states  it  is  one  of  the  most  important  and  largest  of  our 
timber  trees,  with  wood  more  valuable  than  any  other  ash. 
Its  uses  are  manifold:  it  is  staple  in  the  manufacture  of 
agricultural  implements,  carriages,  furniture,  and  in  the 
interior  iSnish  of  buildings.  Tool  handles  and  oars  are 
made  of  white  ash  and  it  is  superior  as  fuel.  The  reddish- 
brown  heart-wood,  with  paler  sap-wood,  is  tough,  elastic, 
hard,  and  heavy.  It  is  not  durable  in  soil  and  becomes 
brittle  with  age. 

Ash  trees  are  late  in  coming  into  leaf.  \Mien  all  the 
forest  is  green  and  full  of  blossoms,  the  ash  trees  are  still 
naked.  Not  until  ]^.Iay  do  the  rusty  yellow  winter  buds  of 
the  white  ash  swell  and  throw  out  on  separate  trees  their 
staminate  and  pistillate  flower  clusters  from  the  axils  of 
last  year's  foliage.  (See  illustration,  page  SI 4..)  Then  the 
leaves  unfold;  downy  at  first,  becoming  bright  and  shiny 
above,  but  always  with  pale  linings.  On  fertile  trees  the 
inconspicuous  flowers  mature  into  pointed  fruits,  one  to 
two  inches  long.  The  wing  is  twice  the  length  of  the  seed 
and  is  rounded  to  a  blunt  point.  The  seed  itself  is  round 
and  pointed,  on  branching  stalks  that  form  clusters  from 
six  to  eight  inches  long. 

As  a  street  tree  the  white  ash  deserves  much  more 
general  favor  in  cities  than  it  has  yet  achieved,  for  it  is 
straight  and  symmetrical,  and  its  light  foliage  grows  in 
irregular,  wavy  masses,  through  which  some  sunlight  can 


204  TREES 

always  sift  and  let  grass  grow  under  the  tree.  This  tree  is 
a  rapid  grower,  perfectly  hardy  in  most  sections  of  the 
country,  and  has  no  serious  insect  enemies.  The  foliage 
turns  to  brownish  purple  and  yellow  in  the  autumn. 


The  Black  Ash 

F,  nigra.  Marsh. 

The  black  ash  is  a  lover  of  marshes,  found  from  New- 
foundland to  Manitoba,  and  from  Virginia  to  Arkansas. 
Its  blue-black  winter  buds,  the  sombre  green  of  its  foliage, 
and  the  dark  hues  of  its  bark  and  wood  have  justified  the 
popular  name  of  this  handsome,  slender  tree.  The  leaflets, 
oval  and  long-pointed,  are  sessile  on  the  hairy  leaf  stalk, 
except  the  terminal  one.  At  maturity  the  leaves  are 
a  foot  or  more  in  length,  of  seven  to  eleven  leaflets,  that 
turn  brown  and  fall  early  in  autumn.  The  keys  of  the 
black  ash  are  borne  in  open  panicles,  eight  to  ten  inches 
long;  each  has  a  short,  flat  seed,  with  a  broad  blade, 
thin,  rounded,  and  notched  instead  of  pointed,  at  the  ex- 
tremity. 

The  wood  of  black  ash  has  the  tough,  heavy  coarse- 
grained qualities  of  the  white  ash,  but  differs  in  being  very 
durable  and  in  being  easily  split  into  thin  layers — each  a 
year's  growth.  The  Indians  taught  the  early  settlers  to 
weave  baskets  out  of  black  ash  splints.  These  splints  are 
easily  separated  by  bending  the  split  wood  over  a  block. 
The  strain  breaks  loose  the  tissue  that  forms  the  spring 
wood,  and  separates  the  bands  of  tough,  dense  summer 
wood  into  strips  suitable  for  basket  weaving.  Black  ash  is 
used  for  chair  seats,  barrel  hoops,  furniture,  and  cabinet- 


THE  ASHES  205 

work.     The  saplings  are  oftenest  chosen  for  hop  and  bean 
poles. 

As  a  lawn  tree,  the  black  ash  has  little  to  recommend  it 
for  it  often  dies  of  thirst  in  the  loam  of  a  garden.  At  best 
it  is  short-lived.  Planted  in  swampy  ground,  the  tree 
spreads  by  seeds,  and  suckers  from  the  roots,  soon  forming 
extensive  thickets,  and  drinking  up  the  moisture  at  a  mar- 
velous rate. 

The  Red  Ash 

F.  Pennsylvanica,  Marsh. 

The  red  ash  follows  the  courses  of  streams  and  lake  mar- 
gins from  New  Brunswick  to  the  Black  Hills  and  south  into 
Florida,  Alabama,  and  Nebraska.  This  tree  is  much 
planted  for  shade  and  ornament  in  New  England,  and  in 
other  Eastern  sections.  The  tree  is  small,  spreading  into 
a  compact  though  irregular  head  of  twiggy,  slender 
branches.  The  yellow-green  foliage,  a  foot  long,  of  seven 
to  nine  short,  stalked,  lustrous  leaflets,  is  lightened  by  a 
pale  pubescence  on  petioles  and  leaf-linings.  The  same 
velvety  down  covers  the  new  shoots.  Summer  and  winter 
this  sign  never  fails. 

Red  ash  seeds  are  extremely  long  and  slender,  and  have 
the  most  graceful  outlines  of  all  the  darts  that  various  ash 
trees  bear.  The  heavy,  round  body  has  a  wing  twice  its 
length  by  which  the  wand  carries  the  seeds  far  away.  Very 
gradually  an  ash  tree  launches  its  seeds.  It  is  easy  to 
understand  why  the  family  is  so  scattered  through  any 
woods,  for  the  wind  i^  the  sower.  The  reddish  bark  of  the 
twigs  and  trunk  of  this  tree  seems  to  be  the  justification  for 
its  name.     Its  brown  wood  is  inferior  to  white  ash. 


206  TREES 

The  Green  Ash 

F.  Pennsylvanica,  Variety  lanceolata,  Sarg. 

The  green  ash  has  narrower,  shorter  leaves  than  the  parent 
species  and  usually  more  sharply  saw- toothed  margins. 
Instead  of  having  pale  linings,  the  leaflets  are  bright  green 
on  both  surfaces.  This  is  the  ash  tree  of  the  almost  treeless 
prairies  from  Dakota  southward,  where  it  not  only  lives,  but 
flourishes  as  well  as  in  its  native  habitat,  the  rich  soil 
of  stream  banks  farther  east.  Its  range  crosses  the  Rocky 
Mountains  and  reaches  the  slopes  of  the  Wasatch  Moun- 
tains in  Utah.  East  of  the  Alleghanies  the  tree  is  little 
known.  It  is  in  the  West  that  it  is  the  dominant  ash. 
It  is  one  of  the  few  important  agencies  which  have  turned 
the  "Great  American  Desert"  into  a  land  of  shady  roads 
and  comfortable,  protected  homesteads. 

The  Blue  Ash 

F.  quadrangulata,  Michx. 

The  blue  ash  has  four-angled  twigs,  often  winged  at  the 
corners  with  a  thin  plate  of  bark.  The  sap  contains  a  sub- 
stance that  gives  a  blue  dye  when  the  inner  bark  is 
macerated  in  water.  The  tree  reaches  one  hundred  and 
twenty  feet  in  height,  above  a  slender  trunk,  and  has  small 
spreading  branches  that  terminate  in  stout  twigs,  char- 
acteristically angled. 

The  tree  is  occasionally  cultivated  in  parks  and  gardens 
in  the  Eastern  states  where  it  is  a  distinct  addition  to  the 
list  of  handsome  shade  trees.  It  is  hardy,  quick  of  growth, 
and  unusually  free  from  the  ills  that  beset  trees.     In  the 


THE  ASHES  207 

forests  it  reaches  its  best  estate  on  the  limestone  hills  of 
the  Big  Smoky  Mountains  Its  wood  ranks  with  the  best 
white  ash  and  exceeds  it  in  one  particular;  it  is  the  most 
durable  ash  wood  when  exposed  alternately  to  wet  and 
dry  conditions.  It  is  used  for  vehicles,  for  flooring  and 
for  handles  of  tools  especially  pitchforks. 

The  Oregon  Ash 

F.  Oregona,  Nutt. 

The  Oregon  ash  follows  the  coast  south  from  Puget 
Sound  to  San  Francisco  Bay,  and  from  the  western  foothills 
of  the  Sierra  Nevada  to  those  of  the  mountains  of  southern 
California.  In  southwestern  Oregon  the  tree  reaches  the 
height  of  eighty  feet,  with  a  trunk  three  to  four  feet  in  di- 
ameter. The  stout  branches  form  a  broad  crown  where 
there  is  room,  and  the  luxuriant  foliage  is  wonderfully  light 
in  color,  pale  green  above,  with  silvery  pubescent  leaf- 
linings.  Of  the  five  to  seven  leaflets,  all  are  sessile  or 
short-stalked,  except  the  terminal  one,  which  has  a 
stem  an  inch  long.  All  are  oval  and  abruptly  pointed, 
thick  and  firm  in  texture,  turning  yellow  or  russet  brown  in 
autumn.  The  lumber  is  counted  equal  to  white  ash  and  is 
one  of  the  most  valuable  of  deciduous  timber  trees  in  the 
western  coast  states. 

A  number  of  little  ash  trees,  distinct  in  species  from  those 
described  already,  are  native  to  limited  sections  of  the 
country.  All  have  the  family  traits  by  wliich  they  are 
readily  recognized,  if  seed  form,  leaf  form,  and  leaf  arrange- 
ment are  kept  in  mind.  In  the  corner  where  Colorado, 
Nevada,  and  Utah  meet,  is  an  ash  with  its  leaf  reduced  to  a 
single  leaflet,  but  the  seeds  are  profusely  borne  to  declare 


208  TREES 

the  tree's  name  to  any  one  who  visits  its  restricted  terri- 
tory. In  rich  soil,  three  leaflets  are  occasionally  de- 
veloped. 

The  European  Ash 

F.  Excelsior,  Linn. 

The  European  ash  is  the  large  timber  ash  from  the 
Atlantic  Coast  of  Europe  to  western  Asia.  The  earliest 
writers  have  ranked  its  wood  next  to  oak  in  usefulness.  It 
was  known  as  "the  husbandman's  tree."  Its  uses  were 
listed  at  interminable  length,  for  "ploughs,  axle-trees, 
wheel-rings,  harrows,  balls  .  .  .  oars,  blocks  for 
pulleys,  tenons  and  mortises,  poles,  spars,  handles,  and 
stocks  for  tools,  spade  trees,  carts,  ladders.  ...  In 
short,  so  good  and  profitable  is  this  tree  that  every  prudent 
Lord  of  a  Manor  should  employ  one  acre  of  ground  with 
Ash  to  every  twenty  acres  of  other  land,  since  in  as  many 
years  it  would  be  more  worth  than  the  land  itself." 

The  sapHngs,  cut  when  three  to  six  years  old,  made  ex- 
cellent fork  and  spade  handles  on  account  of  the  toughness 
and  pliability  of  their  fibre.  Crates  for  china  were  made 
of  the  branches.  Steamed  and  bent,  this  wood  lent  itself 
to  the  making  of  hoops  for  barrels  and  kegs.  The  cutting 
off  of  the  main  trunk  set  the  roots  to  sending  up  a  forest  of 
young  shoots,  ready  for  cutting  again  when  they  reached 
the  size  for  walking-sticks  and  whip-stocks. 

Quite  independent  of  its  lumber  value,  but  possibly 
correlated  with  it,  was  the  great  reputation  the  ash  tree 
achieved  in  the  myths  and  superstitions  of  widely  sep- 
arated peoples.  In  south  Europe,  tradition  declared  that  a 
race  of  brazen  men  sprung  from  the  ash  tree.  In  the  North, 
the  Norse  mythology  made  Igdrasil,  the  ash,  the  "World 


THE  ELMS  209 

tree,"  from  whose  roots  the  whole  race  of  men  sprung.  The 
roots  of  this  mythological  tree  penetrated  the  earth  to  its 
lowest  depths  and  its  giant  top  supported  the  heavens. 
Wisdom  and  knowledge  gushed  from  its  base  as  from 
a  fountain,  and  underneath  were  the  abodes  of  the 
gods,  giants,  and  the  Fates.  Superstitions  of  all  kinds 
have  come  down  with  the  language  of  different  peoples, 
making  the  history  of  the  ash  tree  a  most  interesting 
study. 

A  Chinese  ash  yields  a  valuable  white  wax  which  exudes 
from  the  bark  of  the  twigs.  F.  ornus,  Linn.,  native  to 
south  Europe  and  Asia  Minor,  exudes  a  waxy  secretion 
from  bark  and  leaves.  This  is  the  manna  of  commerce. 
Last  but  not  least  of  the  products  of  the  ash  tree  are  the 
curious  and  beautiful  contortions  of  the  grain  found  in 
**  burls  "  on  the  trunks  of  old  trees  of  many  species.  These 
warty  excrescences  are  eagerly  bought  by  special  agents  for 
cabinet-makers.  Woodwork  from  these  abnormal  growths 
shows  exquisitely  waved  lines  when  polished,  as  delicate  as 
those  in  a  banded  agate.  Fancy  boxes,  bowls,  and  other 
articles  brought  fancy  prices  when  made  of  "ram's  horn" 
or  "fiddleback"  ash,  which  often  went  under  the  trade 
name  of  green  ebony.  The  black  ash  in  America  is  par- 
ticularly subject  to  contortions  of  the  grain. 


THE  ELMS 

Elms  of  sixteen  distinct  species  are  native  to  boreal  and 
temperate  regions  of  the  Northern  Hemisphere,  with  this 
single  exception:  western  North  America  is  without  a  rep- 
resentative.    Europe  lias  three  species,  two  of  which  ex- 


£10  TREES 

tend  their  range  into  eastern  Asia  and  northern  Africa. 
Southern  and  central  Asia  have  their  own  species.  Five 
are  native  to  our  Eastern  states.  Two  European  species 
are  in  cultivation  in  the  North  Atlantic  states,  especially 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Boston,  where  they  are  as  familiar 
as  the  native  species,  in  street  planting. 

Elm  trees  are  valuable  for  shade  and  for  lumber;  their 
wood  is  hard,  heavy,  tough,  pale  in  color,  often  difficult 
to  split.  The  trees  are  distinguished  from  others  by 
their  simple,  unsymmetrical,  strong-ribbed  leaves,  saw- 
toothed,  short-stalked,  always  unequal  and  often  oblique 
at  the  base  of  the  blade.  The  flowers,  usually  perfect,  are 
inconspicuous,  and  the  seeds  are  flat,  entirely  surrounded 
by  a  thin  papery  wing,  that  forms  two  hooks  at  the  tip. 
Wind-carried,  these  seeds  have  had  much  to  do  with 
the  wide  distribution  of  elms. 


The  White  Elm 

Ulmus  Americana^  Linn. 

The  white  or  American  elm  is  widely  known  as  a  tall, 
graceful  wide-spreading  tree,  usually  of  symmetrical, 
vase  shape,  with  slender  limbs  and  drooping  twigs. 
(See  illustration,  page  215.)  It  has  the  rough  furrowed 
bark  characteristic  of  the  genus,  dark  or  light  gray,  with 
paler  branches  and  red-brown  twigs.  The  leaves  are 
alternate,  two  to  six  inches  long,  broadest  near  the 
abruptly  pointed  apex.  Distinctly  one-sided  at  the 
tapering  base,  the  leaves  have  a  fashion  of  arranging 
themselves  in  a  flat  spray  so  as  to  present  almost  a  con- 
tinuous leaf  area  to  the  sun.     One  spray  overlaps  another, 


THE  ELMS  211 

and  leaves  varying  in  size  fit  in  to  fill  every  little  corner 
to  which  sunlight  comes.  This  "leaf  mosaic"  is  not  con- 
fined to  elms  alone.  It  is  especially  noticeable  on  the 
southern  border  of  any  dense  wood. 

Winter  offers  the  best  opportunity  for  the  study  of 
tree  forms.  Our  common  elm  shows  at  least  five  different 
patterns.  The  first  is  the  "vase  form,"  the  commonest 
and  most  beautiful.  This  is  best  realized  by  old  trees 
which  have  had  plenty  of  room.  In  it  the  branches  spread 
gradually  upward  at  first  but  at  a  considerable  height 
sweep  boldly  out  forming  a  broad,  rounded,  or  flattened 
head.  Second  is  the  "plume  form,"  in  which  two  or 
three  main  limbs  rise  to  a  great  height  before  branching, 
and  then  break  into  feathery  spray.  Trees  crowded  in 
woods  are  lilcely  to  take  this  form.  Third,  the  "oak  tree 
form"  shows  a  horizontal  habit  of  branching,  and  an 
angularity  of  limbs  usually  more  noticeable  among  oaks. 
Fourth,  the  "weeping  willow  form,"  where  trees  have 
short  trunks,  from  w^hicli  the  branches  curve  rapidly 
outward  and  end  in  long,  drooping  branchlets.  Fifth  is 
the  "feathered  elm,"  marked  by  a  fringe  of  short  twigs 
which  outline  the  trunk  and  limbs.  This  "feathering" 
is  caused  by  the  late  development  of  latent  buds.  It  may 
occur  in  any  of  the  tree  types  just  mentioned,  but  it  is 
more  noticeable  in  individuals  of  the  plume  form. 

The  American  elm  is  very  familiar  for  it  grows  every- 
where east  of  the  Rocky  ^lountains.  Not  to  know  this 
tree  is  a  mark  of  indifference  and  ignorance.  No  village 
of  any  pride  but  plants  it  freely  as  a  street  tree.  It  is 
hardy  and  cheerful,  reflecting  the  indomitable  spirit  of 
the  pioneer,  whom  it  accompanied  by  seed  and  sapling 
from  the  Eastern  states  into  the  treeless  territories  of  the 


212  TREES 

Middle  West.  With  him  the  tree  seized  the  land  and 
made  it  yield  a  living.  Elms,  which  have  outlived  the 
cotton  woods  and  willows,  are  not  so  large  yet  as  the 
patriarchal  trees  in  old  New-England  villages,  yet  time 
alone  is  needed  to  match,  in  the  valley  of  the  Missouri, 
the  elms  in  the  valley  of  the  Connecticut. 

I  think,  with  due  appreciation  of  its  summer  luxuriance 
of  foliage,  and  the  grace  and  strength  of  the  elm's  frame- 
work in  winter,  that  the  moment  of  greatest  charm  in  the 
life  of  a  roadside  elm  comes  in  the  first  warm  days  of  late 
March.  The  brown  buds  on  the  sides  of  the  twigs  are 
swelKng  and  a  flush  of  purple  overspreads  the  tree,  while 
snow  still  covers  the  ground.  A  tremendous  "fall  of 
leaves"  ensues,  for  the  tiny  bud  scales  that  enclose  the 
elm  flowers  are  but  leaves  in  miniature.  The  elms  are  in 
blossom!  Each  flower  of  each  cluster  has  a  calyx  with 
scalloped  edges,  and  a  fringe  of  four  to  nine  stamens  hang- 
ing far  out  and  surrounding  the  central  solitary  ovary. 
The  color  is  in  the  yellow  anthers  and  the  dark  red  calyx 
lobes. 

Speedily,  the  stamens  shrivel  and  pale  green  pendants, 
which  are  the  seeds,  cluster  upon  the  twigs.  Winged 
for  flight,  these  ripen  and  are  scattered  before  the  leaves 
are  fairly  open,  and  the  growth  of  the  season's  shoots 
begins.  Only  the  pussy  willow,  the  quaking  asp,  and  the 
earliest  maples  bloom  as  early  as  the  elm.  How  much 
they  have  missed,  who  never  saw  an  elm  tree  in  blossom ! 

The  hubs  of  the  "one-hoss  shay"  were  of  "ellum," 
its  interlacing  fibres  peculiarly  fitting  this  wood  for  indes- 
tructibility. Saddle  trees,  boat  timbers,  cooperage,  and 
flooring  employ  it  in  quantities.  It  is  also  used  for  flumes 
and  piles,  for  it  resists  decay  on  exposure  to  water. 


THE  ELMS  213 

The  Slippery  Elm 
U.  fidva,  Michx. 

The  slippery  elm  is  also  known  as  the  red  elm  and  moose 
elm,  because  its  wood  is  red  and  moose  are  fond  of  brows- 
ing its  young  shoots.  In  regions  where  moose  are  rarely 
seen,  it  is  the  small  boy  who  browses  and  often  utterly 
destroys  every  specimen  of  this  valuable  tree.  Under  the 
bark  of  young  shoots  a  sweet  substance  is  found,  which 
gives  the  tree  its  common  name.  What  man  lives  who 
in  the  heydey  of  youth  has  not  had  the  spring  craze  for 
slippery  elm  bark,  as  surely  as  he  had  the  fever  for  kite- 
flying and  playing  marbles  .f*  The  trees  in  every  fence 
row  show  the  wounds  of  jack-knives;  stripping  the  bark> 
the  boys  scrape  from  its  inner  surface  the  thick,  fragrant 
mucilaginous  cambium — a  delectable  substance  that 
allays  both  hunger  and  thirst.  Fortunately  the  bark  of 
the  limbs  supplies  the  demand;  many  a  veteran  tree  still 
suffers  the  pollarding  process,  serving  one  generation  of 
schoolboys  after  another. 

The  inner  bark,  dried  and  ground  and  mixed  with  milk, 
forms  a  valuable  food  for  invalids.  Poultices  of  slippery 
elm  bark  relieve  throat  and  chest  ailments.  Fevers  and 
acute  inflammatory  disorders  are  treated  with  the  same 
bark,  which  has  passed  from  the  list  of  mere  home  remedies 
to  an  established  place  on  the  apothecary's  shelf.  • 

How  shall  we  tell  a  slippery  elm  tree  from  the  American 
elm.^  By  its  leaf  in  summer.  The  roughness  of  the  foliage 
is  one  of  its  striking  characteristics.  Crumple  a  leaf,  and 
its  surfaces  grate  harslily,  for  they  are  covered  with  stifl^» 
tubercular  hairs.     The  leaves  are  larger,  often  reaching 


214  TREES 

seven  inches  in  length.  There  is  a  reddish  or  tawny 
pubescence  on  all  young  shoots,  and  especially  on  the 
bud  scales  in  winter.  The  tree  itself,  in  winter  or  summer, 
is  much  more  coarse  than  its  cousin.  It  is  also  unsymmet- 
rical  in  habit,  each  limb  striking  out  for  itself.  Very  often 
one  meets  a  tree  quite  as  one-sided  in  form  as  its  leaf, 
and  this  without  any  apparent  reason.  But  given  a 
chance  to  grow  without  mutilation,  the  slippery  elm  at- 
tains a  height  of  seventy  feet,  forming  a  broad,  open  head, 
in  comparatively  few  years.  It  is  well  worth  planting 
for  its  lumber  and  for  shade. 


The  Rock  Elm 

U.  Thomasi,  Sarg. 

The  rock  elm  or  cork  elm  chooses  dry,  gravelly  upland 
and  low  heavy  clay  soil,  on  rocky  slopes  and  river  cliffs, 
from  Ontario  and  New  Hampshire  westward  through 
northern  New  York,  southern  Michigan  to  Nebraska 
and  Missouri.  It  is  more  abundant  and  of  largest  size 
in  Ontario  and  in  the  southern  peninsula  of  Michigan. 

Its  leaf  is  small,  thick,  and  firm,  dark  green,  and  turns  to 
brilliant  yellow  in  the  autumn.  Its  flowers  and  fruits 
are  borne  in  racemes.  At  any  season,  one  knows  this 
cork  elm  by  the  shaggy  bark  on  its  stout  limbs  that  make 
the  tree  resemble  a  bur  oak.  "Rock  elm"  and  "hickory 
elm"  are  names  that  refer  to  the  hardness  of  the  wood. 
The  wheelwright  counts  it  the  best  of  all  elms.  Compact, 
with  interlacing  fibres,  there  are  spring,  strength,  and 
toughness  in  this  wood  which  adapt  it  for  bridge  timbers, 
heavy  agricultural  implements,  wheel  stocks,  sills,  and  axe- 


See  yage  222 


A    GROUP    CF    WHITE    PINES 


Sec  page  ■:-->ij 
LEAVES    AND   CONES   OF   THE   SHOliTLKAF    PIXH 


See  page  210 


AMERICAN    ELM 


TIIE  ELMS  215 

handles.     The  name  "cork  elm"  refers  to  the  corky  bark 
which  runs  out  in  winged  ridges,  even  to  the  twigs. 


The  Winged  Elm 

U.  (data,  Michx. 

The  winged  elm,  or  wahoo,  is  dainty  and  small,  its  leaves 
and  the  two  thin  corky  blades  that  arise  on  each  twig 
befitting  the  smallest  elm  tree  in  the  family.  Despite  its 
corky  wings,  it  has  none  of  the  ruggedness  of  the  cork  elm, 
but  is  a  pretty  round-headed  tree.  It  is  distributed  from 
Virginia  to  Florida  and  west  to  Illinois  and  Texas. 
"Mountain  elm"  and  "small-leaved  elm"  are  local 
names.  "Wahoo"  is  local  also,  belonging  chiefly  to  the 
South.  Even  the  little  seed  of  this  tree  is  long  and  slender, 
its  wing  prolonged  into  two  incurving  hooks. 


The  English  Elm 

U.  campestris,  Linn. 

The  English  elm  is  often  seen  in  the  Eastern  states, 
planted  w^th  the  American  elm  in  parks  and  streets,  where 
the  two  species  contrast  strikingly.  The  English  tree 
looks  stocky,  the  American  airily  graceful.  One  stands 
heavily  upon  its  heels,  the  other  on  tiptoe.  One  has  a 
compact,  pyramidal  or  oblong  head,  the  other  a  loose  open 
one.  In  October  the  superb  English  elms  on  Boston 
Common  arc  still  bright  green,  while  their  American 
cousins  have  passed  into  "the  sere  and  yellow  leaf." 


216  TREES 

The  Scotch  Elm 

TJ,  montana,  Linn. 

Tlie  Scotch  or  wych  elm  is  planted  freely  in  parks  and 
private  grounds.  It  is  a  medium-sized  tree  of  rather  more 
strict  habit  of  growth  than  the  American  elm.  Before 
the  leaves  open  the  tree  often  looks  bright  green  from  a 
distance.  This  appearance  is  due  to  the  winged  seeds 
which  are  exceptionally  large  and  crowd  the  twig  in  great 
rosettes. 

One  horticultural  variety  of  this  species  is  the  weeping 
form  known  as  the  Camperdown  elm,  which  arches  its 
limbs  downward  on  all  sides,  forming  when  full-grown 
a  natural  arbor.  One  often  sees  this  tree  planted  on 
lawns  of  limited  extent,  and  so  near  the  street  as  to  render 
utterly  absurd  its  invitation  to  privacy.  To  serve  that 
reasonable  and  delightful  end,  the  tree  should  be  planted 
in  a  retired  corner  of  one's  grounds,  where  an  afternoon 
siesta  may  be  enjoyed  undisturbed. 


PART  \T[II 
THE  CONE-BEARING  EVERGREENS 

The  Pines — The  Spruces — The  Firs — The  Douglas 
Spruce — The  Hemlocks — The  Sequoias — The 
Abror-vit^s — The  Incense  Cedar — The  Cypresses 
— The  Junipers — Tpie  Larches,  or  Tamaracks 


The  cone-bearers,  or  conifers,  are  a  distinct  race  that  we 
commonly  call  evergreens.  They  include  pines,  hemlocks, 
spruces,  firs,  sequoias,  cypresses,  cedars,  and  junipers.  Be- 
sides these,  the  tamaracks  and  the  bald  cypress  must  be 
included,  although  their  leaves  are  shed  in  the  autumn. 
The  term  "evergreen"  applies  equally  well  to  magnohas, 
laurels,  and  many  oaks.  Birches  and  alders  and  magno- 
lias bear  cone-like  fruits.  Notwithstanding  such  excep- 
tions, the  cone-bearing  trees  are  mostly  evergreen,  and 
their  family  traits  are  so  strongly  marked  that  even  the  be- 
ginner in  tree  study  eliminates  the  exceptional  instances 
early  in  his  studies. 

The  pines  and  their  relatives  in  the  coniferous  group  are 
an  ancient  race,  composed  of  proud  old  "first  families." 
Along  the  shores  of  the  Silurian  seas  they  stood  up,  straight 
and  tall,  their  only  companions  that  stood  erect,  the  giant 
horse-tails  and  tree  ferns.  This  was  long  before  modern 
tree  families  had  any  existence.     There  were  no  broad- 

217 


218  TREES 

leaved  trees.  In  the  coal  measures  are  found  the  mum- 
mied remains  of  these  prehistoric  conifers.  The  cycads  in 
the  Everglades  of  Florida  are  some  of  their  surviving  repre- 
sentatives. These  are  facing  extinction,  and  the  conifers, 
too,  are  declining.  They  had  reached  their  prime  as  a  race 
when  the  broad-leaved  trees  appeared  upon  the  earth. 
The  vigor  of  the  new  race  enabled  it  to  seize  the  richest, 
well-watered  regions.  They  drove  the  conifers  to  seek  the 
swamps,  the  exposed  seacoasts,  the  barren  and  rocky 
mountain  slopes.  Man  has  ruthlessly  destroyed  for  tim- 
ber the  coniferous  forests  of  this  country  and  much  of  the 
territory  denuded  by  the  axe  is  either  devoted  to  agricul- 
ture or  has  been  seized  by  broad-leaved  species  of  trees, 
more  tenacious  of  life  and  with  seeds  more  quick  and  sure 
to  germinate  than  those  of  the  conifers.  The  time  is  not 
far  distant,  geologically  speaking,  when  this  ancient  and 
dechning  family  of  trees  will  exist  only  as  man  fosters  it  by 
cultivation. 

The  conifers  have  resinous  wood,  with  stiff,  needle-like 
or  scale-like  leaves,  and  inconspicuous  flowers  of  two  sorts, 
borne  in  clusters  like  catkins.  The  pistillate  catkin 
matures  into  a  woody  cone  made  of  overlapping  scales  at- 
tached to  a  central  stem.  ,  On  each  scale  are  borne  one  or 
more  winged  seeds. 

The  one  character  which  is  constant  in  the  whole  co- 
niferous group  and  sets  it  apart  from  the  rest  of  the  plant 
kingdom,  is  expressed  in  the  name  Gymnosperm,  applied  to 
this  botanical  grand  division.  It  means  "naked  seed." 
There  is  no  ovary  in  the  flower.  The  naked  ovules  are 
borne  on  the  scales  of  the  fertile  spike  or  catkin,  which  is 
held  apart  and  erect  in  blossoming  time.  They  are 
pollinated  by  the  wind,  which  sifts  them  with  golden  pollen 


THE  CONE-BEARING  EVERGREENS      219 

dust,  abundant  in  the  staminate  catkins  clustered  on  the 
same  tree.  Contact  of  pollen  grains  and  naked  ovules  is 
followed  by  their  coalescence — the  "setting  of  seeds." 

The  distinguishing  trait  of  the  higher  plants  that  form 
the  grand  division  known  as  AngiospermSy  is  that  the 
ovules  are  borne  in  a  closed  ovary,  and  the  pollen  lodges  on 
the  end  of  a  stigma.  "Pollen  tubes"  grow  down  through 
the  long  style,  finally  reach  the  hidden  ovule,  and  seed  is 
set.  This  complicated  process  is  found  in  the  majority  of 
flowers  one  studies  in  botany  classes.  Gymnosperms,  and 
the  still  lower  groups  of  flow^erless  ferns  and  mosses,  are 
merely  glanced  at  by  amateur  botanists.  The  more  prim- 
itive plant  forms  are  too  difficult  for  beginners. 

The  habit  of  the  conifers  is  a  character  upon  which  we 
may  depend.  With  rare  exceptions,  there  is  a  central 
shaft,  "the  leader,"  and  short  horizontal  branches  in 
whorls  forming  platforms.  The  side  branches,  also 
whorled,  are  generally  flattened  into  a  horizontal  spray. 
The  leaves  are  narrow,  needle-like,  or  scale-like,  and  waxy 
or  resinous.  The  tough  fibre  of  the  wood  enables  the  coni- 
fers to  resist  damage  by  wind  and  by  ice.  Snowflakes  sift 
to  the  ground  instead  of  accumulating  upon  the  branches 
and  breaking  them  by  their  cumulative  weight.  The 
wind,  which  pollinated  the  fertile  flowers  of  coniferous 
forests  long  before  nectar-gathering  insects  came  upon  the 
earth,  is  the  harvester  of  their  seeds.  It  scatters  them  far 
and  wide;  each  seed  has  a  wing  that  adapts  it  to  long 
journeys  in  front  of  a  gale. 

The  resinous  sap  that  courses  through  the  veins  of  conif- 
erous wood  seals  up  the  bark,  leaves,  and  cones  against  the 
invasion  of  enemies,  and  acts  as  an  antiseptic  dressing  for 
wounds.     Without  these  special  adaptations  to  a  life  of 


220  TREES 

hardship,  the  conifers  would  never  have  held  their  own  as 
they  have  done.  They  inhabit  regions  where  conditions 
discourage  all  but  a  few  of  the  broad-leaved  trees. 


THE  PINES 

In  a  forest  of  needle-leaved  evergreens  it  is  perfectly  easy 
to  distinguish  the  pines  by  their  leaves.  Look  along  the 
twigs  and  you  will  find  the  needles  arranged  in  bundles, 
with  a  papery,  enclosing  sheath  at  the  base.  Follow 
farther  back  and  these  sheaths  are  missing,  but  on  long 
stretches  between  the  growing  tip  and  the  leafless  part  of 
the  branch  the  characteristic  sheathed  needle-bundles  de- 
clare this  evergreen  to  be  a  pine.  No  other  conifer  has 
this  trait,  no  pine  grows  but  shows  it  every  day  in  the 
year. 

One  half  of  the  eighty  known  species  of  pines  grow  in 
North  America.  Pure  forests  of  great  extent  are  found  in 
the  Southern  states,  in  the  Great  Lakes  region,  and  on  the 
mountain  slopes  in  the  western  and  northern  parts  of  the 
continent.  Smaller  areas  occur  in  the  Eastern  states. 
Very  soon  these  forests  must  be  spoken  of  in  the  past  tense, 
for  a  century  of  destructive  lumbering  has  almost  cleared 
the  Northeast  of  pine  timber,  and  though  the  exploitation 
of  the  pine  forests  of  the  South  and  about  the  Great  Lakes 
came  later,  as  population  increased  in  the  Middle  West,  the 
work  has  progressed  much  more  rapidly.  The  idea  of  for- 
est conservation,  crystallized  into  federal  law  by  popular 
demand,  has  come  too  late  to  save  from  wasteful  exploita- 
tion the  superb  pine  forests  west  of  the  Rockies.  Yet 
thousands  of  acres  of  forests  are  now  under  government 


THE  PINES  221 

control  and  here  a  great  object  lesson  in  rational  methods 
of  forest  maintenance  is  being  given.  The  pineries  of 
the  future  depend  upon  the  success  of  methods  there  em- 
ployed. 

The  uses  of  pines  are  not  all  counted  in  terms  of  the 
lumberman.  There  are  pines  for  every  situation,  soil,  and 
climate.  On  low  seaboard  plains  they  come  down  to  the 
highwater  mark.  They  wade  into  inundated  swamps  and 
dimb  to  the  timber  line  on  arid,  rocky  mountainsides. 
The  bravest  species  go  out  into  the  desert.  Almost  as 
brave  are  those  which  survive  the  smoke  and  dust  of  cities 
like  Pittsburg  and  St.  Louis,  though  theirs  is  a  losing  fight 
with  sulphurous  fumes  and  cramped  root  space  in  the 
smoky  town.  As  shelter  belts,  as  windbreaks,  as  shade 
and  ornamental  trees,  there  are  pines  in  cultivation  in  all 
parts  of  the  country,  their  winter  usefulness  and  beauty 
making  them  universally  the  choice  of  home-makers,  rich 
and  poor. 

By-products  of  pine  wood  are  chiefly  turpentine,  pitch, 
resin,  and  oil,  derived  from  the  resinous  sap.  "Naval 
stores"  these  products  are  called,  for  their  consumption  is 
greatest  in  shipyards.  Turpentine  is  extensively  used  in 
the  arts  and  industries.  If  the  Southern  pine  forests  are 
allowed  to  dwindle,  the  deficit  in  lumber  will  not  affect 
world  commerce  as  disastrously  as  the  cutting  oil  of  the 
naval  stores  production. 

The  lumberman's  division  of  the  pines  is  a  convenient 
one.  "Soft  pines"  have  soft,  light  wood,  not  heavily  im- 
pregnated with  resin.  It  is  tlie  delight  of  wood-workers. 
"Hard  pines"  have  heavy,  dark-colored  wood,  full  of  resin, 
which  is  a  nuisance  to  the  carpenter,  because  it  "gums  up" 
his  tools.     The  one  little  sign  enables  us  to  distinguish 


222  TREES 

hard  and  soft  pines  without  examination  of  the  wood. 
Soft  pines  shed  the  papery  sheath  of  their  leaf  bundles  be- 
fore the  leaves  themselves  begin  to  fall.  Hard  pines  re- 
tain the  leaf  sheath  mitil  the  leaves  are  shed.  A  glance  at 
any  leafy  pine  branch  will  enable  us  to  determine  to  which 
of  the  two  classes  a  given  tree  belongs. 


The  Soft  Pines 

The  outward  and  visible  sign  of  a  soft  pine  is  the  loose, 
deciduous  sheath  of  its  leaf  bundles.  The  scales  of  its 
cones  are  usually  unarmed  with  horns  or  prickles.  The 
wood  is  soft,  light  colored,  close-grained.  The  number  of 
leaves  in  a  bundle  is  the  principal  key  to  the  species. 

The  White  Pine 

Pinus  Strobus,  Linn. 

The  white  pine  (see  illustrations,  "pages  21^-215)  is  the  only 
pine  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  that  bears  its  leaves  in 
bundles  of  five.  This  semi-decimal  plan  is  found  in  three 
western  soft  pines  and  two  western  hard  pines;  but  in  the 
East,  a  native  tree  with  needles  in  fives,  leaves  no  doubt  as 
to  its  name.  From  a  distance  this  plan  of  ^yq  can  be  seen 
in  the  five  branches  that  form  a  platform  each  year  around 
the  central  shaft. 

Study  a  sapling  pine  and  you  see  in  its  vigorous  young 
growth  the  fulfillment  of  nature's  plan,  before  storms  have 
broken  any  of  the  branches  and  changed  the  mathematics 
of  the  pattern.  Stroke  the  flexible,  soft  leaves  that  sway 
graceful  and  hthe  in  the  wind.     If  it  is  spring,  note  that 


THE  PINES  223 

the  terminal  bud  has  pushed  out,  and  around  it  five-clus- 
tered buds  are  forming  a  circle  of  shoots.  In  autumn,  after 
the  season's  growth  is  finished,  each  twig  ends  in  a  single 
bud,  with  a  whorl  of  five  buds  around  it.  From  the 
ground  upward,  count  the  platforms  of  branches.  Each 
whorl  of  five  marks  a  year  in  the  tree's  growth.  The 
terminal  bud  carries  the  height  a  foot  or  two  upward,  and 
its  surromiding  five  buds  grow  in  the  horizontal  plane, 
forming  the  last  and  smallest  platform  of  leafy  shoots. 
Each  branch  is  a  year  younger  than  the  shoot  that  bears  it. 
Note  throughout  this  little  tree  the  plan  of  five,  from  leaf 
cluster  to  largest  branch. 

Now  go  to  the  largest  white  pine  in  your  neighborhood, 
study  the  plan  of  five  in  this  tree,  and  find  out  the  reason 
for  any  failures.  Notice  the  conflict  between  the  branches 
in  the  close  platforms.  Find  branches  where  this  conflict 
is  in  progress.  Pick  out  the  winner.  Read  the  age  of  the 
tree  by  the  platforms  of  branches  on  the  trunk. 

No  evergreen  is  more  beautiful  than  a  white  pine  grown 
in  rich  soil  in  a  situation  sufficiently  sheltered  to  defend  its 
supple  branches  from  breakage  by  severe  winds.  Its  soft, 
plume-like  twigs  are  dark  blue-green,  with  pale  lines 
lining  each  individual  leaf.  The  young  shoots  are  yellow- 
ish green,  and  they  lighten  in  a  wonderful  manner  the 
sombre  coloring  of  the  older  foliage.  At  the  bases  of  the 
new  shoots  cluster  the  staminate  catkins,  in  early  June. 
Yellow  and  becoming  loose  and  pendulous  as  the  wind 
shakos  them,  they  are  soon  empty  of  their  abundant  pollen, 
which  drifts  lilvc  gold  dust  and  fills  the  air.  Among  the 
youngest  leaves,  toward  the  end  of  the  shoot,  the  pur- 
plish rosy  lips  of  the  erect  pistillate  cone-flowers  catch  the 
dust  from  nrlglil^or  trees,  and  their  naked  ovules  absorb  it 


224  TREES 

and  set  seed.  Close  shut  are  the  lips  again,  against  any 
other  invasion,  while  these  ovules  mature.  We  shall  find 
them  standing  erect  until  autumn,  but  next  season  they 
hang  down  with  their  added  weight,  and  at  the  end  of  the 
second  summer  the  scales  change  from  green  to  brown, 
open  and  give  their  ripe  winged  seeds  to  the  wind  for  dis- 
tribution. Because  the  tree  is  biennial-fruited,  it  always 
carries  two  sizes  of  cones.  The  large  ones  are  one  year 
older  than  the  small  ones.  Ripe  cones  are  ^ve  to  ten 
inches  long,  with  thin,  broad,  unarmed  scales,  squarish  at 
the  tips. 

The  most  hopeful  phase  of  the  white  pine  problem  to-day 
is  the  fact  that  new  forests  are  coming  up  naturally  where 
the  early  lumbering  deforested  great  tracts  in  the  Eastern 
states.  Careful  forestry  improves  upon  nature's  method, 
and  so  the  pines  are  being  restored  on  land  unfit  for  agri- 
cultural crops.  White  pine  is  one  of  the  most  profitable 
timber  crops  to  plant  at  the  present  time. 

The   Mountain  Pine 

P.  monticola,  D.  Don. 

The  mountain  pine  is  scattered  through  mountain  forests 
from  the  Columbia  River  Basin  in  British  Columbia  to 
Vancouver  Island,  along  the  western  slopes  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  to  northern  Montana  and  Idaho,  and  south 
along  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  Cascade  ranges  in  Washing- 
ton and  Oregon,  well  into  California.  From  the  bottom 
lands  of  streams,  where  it  is  most  abundant  and  reaches  a 
height  of  one  hundred  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet,  and  a 
trunk  diameter  of  five  to  eight  feet,  it  climbs  to  elevations 
of  eight  to  ten  thousand  feet  on  the  California  Sierras. 


THE  PINES  225 

The  bark  of  young  trees  and  on  the  branches  of  old  ones  is 
smooth  and  pale-gray.  The  leaves,  five  in  the  bundles, 
range  from  one  to  four  inches  in  length,  still,  blue-green, 
whitened  by  two  to  six  stripes  on  the  inner  side.  The 
cones  are  twelve  to  eighteen  inches  long,  with  thickened, 
pointed  scales  ending  in  an  abrupt  beak.  The  larger 
cone,  denser,  stiffer  foliage,  and  the  white  bark  make  this 
white  pine  of  the  western  mountains  a  great  contrast  to 
the  Eastern  white  pine. 

Unlike  many  trees  whose  size  diminishes  with  increase 
in  altitude,  this  wdiite  pine  grows  to  majestic  size  at  alti- 
tudes of  nearly  two  miles,  its  noble  figure  more  striking 
and  impressive  because  of  the  dwindling  size  of  its  com- 
panions on  the  mountain-sides.  The  lumberman  looks 
with  despair  upon  these  giant  white  pines,  quite  out  of  his 
reach. 

In  the  Arnold  Arboretum  in  Boston  a  fine  seedling 
specimen  of  this  western  silver  pine  fruited  when  but 
twelve  feet  high,  and  proves  vigorous  and  altogether  happy 
in  this  absolutely  changed  climatic  environment.  In 
Europe  the  same  success  attends  the  cultivation  of  these 
trees,  which  have  become  very  popular  in  parks  and  pri- 
vate grounds.  Their  introduction  into  our  Eastern  states 
can  now  be  assured  of  success. 

The  Sugar  Pine 

P.  Lamhcr Liana,  Dougl. 

The  sugar  pine  {see  illustration,  "page  231)  belongs  in 
the  class  with  those  tree  giants,  the  sequoias,  with  which 
it  grows  in  the  mountain  forests  of  Oregon  and  California. 
John  Muir  calls  it ''  the  largest,  noblest,  and  most  beautiful 


226  TREES 

of  all  the  pine  trees  in  the  world."  Trees  two  hundred  feet 
high,  with  trunk  diameter  of  six  to  eight  feet,  are  not  un- 
common. The  maximum  given  by  Sargent  is  twelve 
feet  across  the  stump.  The  head  of  a  sugar  pine  is 
rounded  and  broad,  with  pendulous  branches,  tufted  with 
stout,  dark  green  leaves,  three  to  four  inches  long.  The 
cones  are  the  largest  known,  reaching  eighteen  inches  in 
length,  rarely  longer.  The  black  or  dark  brown  seeds  are 
one  to  five  inches  long,  including  the  flat,  blunt  wings. 
Indians,  bears,  and  squirrels  gather  the  abundant  harvest 
of  these  cones,  which  are  rich  in  nutriment  and  pleasant 
to  the  taste.  Crystals  of  sugar  form  white  masses  like 
rock  candy,  but  with  a  taste  of  maple  sugar,  wherever  a 
break  in  the  bark  of  a  sugar  pine  permits  the  escape  of  the 
sweet  sap.  This  gives  the  tree  its  name.  No  other  pine 
has  sap  with  such  a  noticeable  sugar  content. 

Fortunately,  these  gigantic  soft  pines  belong  to  the 
high  Sierras  and  do  not  go  down  to  the  sea,  where  lumber- 
men could  sacrifice  them  without  effort.  Nature  has 
fenced  them  in  by  many  barriers,  and  the  government,  by 
reservation  in  national  parks,  insures  the  preservation 
of  some  of  the  finest  sugar  pine  groves,  for  the  use  and 
inspiration  of  all  the  people. 

A  visit  to  Yosemite  is  the  experience  of  a  lifetime  to 
any  American.  Here  grow  the  most  gigantic  trees  in  the 
world,  and  the  sugar  pines  are  nobler  even  than  the  giant 
"big  trees,"  for  the  latter  are  often  decrepit,  while  the 
sugar  pines  are  hale  and  youthful  by  comparison.  Leaving 
behind  the  scrawny  gray  digger  pines  on  the  foothills,  the 
traveler  enters  the  belt  of  the  yellow  pines,  on  the  higher 
elevations,  and  passing  these  he  comes  to  the  grand  sugar 
pines  along  the  highest  level  of  the  stage  road  that  leads 


THE  PINES  227 

into  the  National  Park.  The  road  is  no  wider  than  the 
broad  stumps  of  sugar  pines,  scattered  here  and  there. 
The  standing  trees  amaze  one  with  their  height  and 
girth. 

It  is  impossible  to  shake  off  the  impression  that  some 
magic  has  put  magnifiers  in  our  eyes;  for  trees,  beetling 
clills,  and  rushing  cataracts  are  bigger  than  their  counter- 
parts in  other  regions  of  the  world  far-famed  for  their 
scenery.  The  sugar  pine  trunks  seem  like  great  builded 
columns,  too  large  for  any  real  tree  to  grow,  and  the 
"big  trees"  in  the  Mariposa  Grove  intensify  this  im- 
pression of  unreality.  In  a  day  or  two  the  traveler  be- 
comes accustomed  to  his  surroundings.  He  goes  out  of 
the  Park  and  down  into  the  world  of  men  and  affairs, 
his  soul  enlarged,  his  life  enriched  by  an  experience  he 
can  never  quite  forget.  He  is  a  bigger,  better  man  for  his 
brief  association  with  Nature  in  her  noblest  manifestations. 

The  wood  of  the  sugar  pine  is  soft,  golden,  satiny,  fra- 
grant, inviting  the  woodworker  through  every  one  of  his 
senses.  A  single  tree  often  yields  five  thousand  dollars' 
worth  of  marketable  lumber,  the  finest,  straight-grained 
soft  pine  in  the  world. 

The  shame  of  the  century  is  the  wanton  destruction  of 
sugar  pine  trees  by  vagrant  shingle-makers  and  thieving 
mill-owners,  who  despoiled  the  grandest  trunlcs  of  their 
choicest  wood,  wastcfully  leaving  the  bulk  to  cumber  the 
ground  and  invite  forest  fires.  Late  and  slowly,  but  surely 
also  is  the  popular  mind  awakening  to  the  fact  that  forests 
belong  to  the  nation  and  should  be  conserved  and  main- 
tained for  the  whole  people — not  wasted  for  the  temporary 
enrichment  of  private  owners,  as  forest  wealth  has  been 
squandered  in  past  years. 


ms  TREES 

Rocky  Mountain  White  Pine 
P.  fiexili^,  James 

The  Rocky  Mountain  white  pine  inhabits  mountain 
slopes  from  Alberta  to  Mexico,  including  the  Sierra  Neva- 
da range.  In  northern  New  Mexico  and  Arizona  it 
occasionally  reaches  eighty  feet  in  height,  but  ordinarily 
does  not  exceed  fifty.  Its  rounded  dome,  as  broad  as  an 
oak,  bravely  dares  the  wind  on  exposed  cliffs,  and  crouches 
as  a  stunted  shrub  at  altitudes  of  twelve  thousand  feet. 
The  "limber  pine"  it  is  called,  from  the  toughness  of  its 
fibre,  which  alone  enables  its  long  limbs  to  sustain  the 
whipping  they  get.  The  leaves  form  thick,  beautiful 
dark-green  tufts,  which  are  not  shed  until  the  fifth  or  sixth 
year.  The  cones  are  three  to  ten  inches  long,  purplish; 
scales  rounded,  abruptly  beaked  at  the  apex;  narrow  wings 
entirely  surround  the  seeds,  which  fall  in  September. 

This  is  the  lumber  pine  of  the  semi-arid  ranges  of  "  The 
Great  American  Desert";  the  main  dependence  of  builders, 
too,  on  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  Rockies  in  Montana. 


The  White-bark  Pine 

P.    alhicaulis,   Engelm. 

The  white-bark  pine  is  a  rippled,  gnarled,  squatting 
tree,  whose  matted  branches,  cumbered  with  needles  and 
snow,  make  a  platform  on  which  the  hardy  mountain- 
climber  may  walk  with  safety  in  midwinter.  It  offers 
him  a  springy  mattress  for  his  bed,  as  well.  The  trunk 
is  covered  with  snowy  bark  that  glistens  like  the  ice- 


THE  PINES  229 

mantle  that  lies  on  the  treeless  mountain-side  just  above 
the  timber  line. 

From  a  tvvelve-thousand-foot  elevation  on  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  in  British  Columbia  and  south  to  the  Yellow- 
stone, the  tree  clambers  down  to  the  five-thousand-foot 
line,  where  it  sometimes  attains  forty  feet  in  height;  its 
dark  green,  rigid  leaves  persist  from  ^ve  to  eight  years, 
always  five  in  a  bundle,  and  never  more  than  two  and  a 
half  inches  long.  The  cones,  horny-tipped,  dark  purple, 
one  to  three  inches  long,  are  ripe  in  August;  the  large  sweet 
seeds  are  gathered  and  eaten  by  Indians.  In  California  the 
tree's  ransje  extends  into  the  San  Bernardino  Mountains. 


THE  TWO  "FOXTAIL"  PINES 

Two  Western  pines  are  distinguished  by  the  common 
name  "foxtail  pine,"  because  the  leaves  are  crowded  on 
the  ends  of  bare  branchlets.  P.  Balfouriana,  M.  Murr., 
has  stiff,  stout  dark  green  leaves  with  pale  linings.  The 
tree  is  wonderfully  picturesque  when  old,  with  an  open 
irregular  pyramid,  on  the  higher  foothills  of  the  California 
mountains,  or  crouching  as  an  aged  straggling  shrub  at 
the  timber-line.  Its  cones  are  elongated,  the  scales  thick- 
ened and  minutely  spiny  at  tip. 

The  second  five-leaved  foxtail  pine  is  P.  aristatay  En- 
gelm.,  also  called  the  "prickle-cone  pine,"  from  the  curving 
spines  that  arm  the  scales  of  the  purplish  brown  fruits. 
This  is  a  bushy  tree,  with  sprawling  lower  branches  and 
upper  ones  that  stand  erect  and  are  usually  much  longer, 
giving  the  tree  a  strange  irregularity  of  form.  The  leaves 
are  short  and  crowded  in  terminal  brushes.  From  a  stocky 
tree  forty  feet  high,  to  a  shrub  at  the  timber  line,  this  tree 


230  TREES 

is  found  near  the  limit  of  tree  growth,  from  the  outer 
ranges  of  the  mountains  of  Colorado  to  those  of  southern 
Utah,  Nevada,  northern  Arizona  and  southeastern  Cali- 
fornil  In  Eastern  paries  it  is  occasionally  seen  as  a 
shrubby  pine  with  unusually  interesting,  artistic  cones. 


THE  NUT  PINES 


The  nut  pines,  four  in  number,  supply  Indians  and 
Mexicans  of  the  Southwest  with  a  store  of  food  in  the 
autumn,  for  the  seeds  are  large  and  rich  m  oils  and 
they  have  keeping  qualities  that  permit  their  hoardmg 
for  winter.  The  four-leaved  P.  quadrifoha.,  Suaw., 
scattered  over  the  mountains  of  southern  and  Lower 
California,  has  four  leaves  in  a  cluster,  as  a  rule.  A  desert 
tree,  its  foliage  is  pale  gray-green,  harmonizing  with  the 
arid  mesas  and  low  mountain  slopes,  where  it  is  found. 
The  cones  are  small  with  few  scales,  but  the  nut  is  five- 
eighths  of  an  inch  long  and  very  rich.  _ 

P  cembroides,  Zucc,  with  two  to  three  leaves,  is  the 
"pinon,"  that  covers  the  upper  slopes  of  Arizona  moun- 
tains with  open  forests  fifteen  to  twenty  feet  high.  Ihe 
leaves  are  one  to  two  inches  long,  dark  green  with  pale 
lines,  the  branchlets  orange-colored  and  matted  with 
hairs.  The  large  nuts  are  very  oily,  and  so  abundant  m 
the  mountains  of  northern  Mexico  that  they  are  sold  m 
large  quantities  in  every  town. 

The  pinon  (P.  edulis,  Engelm.)  ranges  from  the  eastern 
foothills  of  the  Colorado  Rockies  to  western  Texas  and 
westward  to  the  eastern  borders  of  Utah,  southwestern 
Wyoming,  central  Arizona  and  on  into  Mexico,  often 
forming  extensive  open  forests,  and  reaching  an  elevation 


THE  PINES  231 

of  seven  thousand  feet.  Short,  stiff  leaves  in  clusters 
of  two  or  three,  dark  green,  ridged,  stout,  often  persist 
for  eight  or  nine  years.  The  tree  is  a  broad  compact 
pyramid;  in  age,  dense,  round-topped,  with  stout  branch- 
lets  and  abundant  globose  cones.  Each  scale  covers  two 
seeds,  wingless,  about  the  size  of  honey  locust  seeds,  oily, 
sweet,  nutritious  and  of  delicious  flavor.  This  is  the 
pine  nut  par  excellence,  whose  newest  market  is  among 
confectioners  and  fancy  grocers  throughout  the  states. 

The  one-leaved  nut  pine  (P.  monopliylla,  Torr.),  spreads 
like  an  old  apple  tree,  and  forms  alow,  round-topped,  pictur- 
esque head,  its  lower  limbs  drooping  to  the  ground.  The 
reduction  of  the  leaves  in  the  clusters  to  lowest  terms,  gives 
the  tree  a  starved  look,  and  the  eighteen  or  twenty  rows  of 
pale  stomates  on  each  leaf  give  the  tree-top  a  ghostly  pal- 
lor. The  vigor  of  the  tree  is  expressed  in  its  abundant 
fruit,  short,  oblong,  one  to  two  inches  in  length,  with  rich 
plump  brown  seeds  upon  which  the  Indians  of  Nevada  and 
California  have  long  depended.  The  wood  supplies  fuel 
and  charcoal  for  smelters;  and  this  stunted  tree,  rarely 
over  twenty  feet  in  height,  forms  nut  orchards  for  the 
aborigines  and  the  scattered  population  of  whatever 
race,  between  altitudes  of  five  and  seven  thousand  feet. 
From  the  western  slopes  of  the  Wasatch  Mountains  of 
Utah,  it  ranges  to  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  southern 
Sierra  Nevada,  to  their  western  slopes  at  the  head  waters  of 
King's  River,  and  southward  to  northern  Arizona  and  to 
the  mountains  of  southern  California. 

John  Muir  savs: 


"It  is  the  commonest  tree  of  the  short  mountain  ranges 
of  the  Great  Basin.     Tens  of  thousands  of  acres  are  cov- 


232  TREES 

ered  with  it,  forming  bountiful  orchards  for  the  red  man. 
Being  so  low  and  accessible,  the  cones  are  easily  beaten  off 
with  poles,  and  the  nuts  are  procured  by  roasting  until  the 
scales  open.  To  the  tribes  of  the  desert  and  sage  plains 
these  seeds  are  the  staff  of  life.  They  are  eaten  either  raw 
or  parched,  or  in  the  form  of  mush,  or  cakes,  after  being 
pounded  into  meal.  The  time  of  nut  harvest  is  the 
merriest  time  of  the  year.  An  industrious,  squirrelish 
family  can  gather  fifty  or  sixty  bushels  in  a  single  month 
before  the  snow  comes,  and  then  their  bread  for  the  winter 
is  sure." 

THE  PITCH  PINES 

Pitch  pines  have  usually  heavy  coarse-grained,  dark- 
colored  wood,  rich  in  resin — a  nuisance  to  the  carpenter. 
The  leaf -bundles  have  persistent  sheaths.  The  cone  scales 
are  thick  and  usually  armed.  "Hard  pine"  is  a  car- 
penter's synonym.  The  group  includes  some  of  the  most 
valuable  timber  trees  in  American  forests. 

The  Longleaf  Pine 

P.  palustris.  Mill. 

The  longleaf  pine  is  preeminent  in  importance  in  the 
lumber  trade  and  in  the  production  of  naval  stores.  It 
stretches  in  a  belt  about  one  hundred  and  twenty-five 
miles  wide,  somewhat  back  from  the  coast,  all  the  way 
from  Virginia  to  Tampa  Bay  and  west  to  the  Mississippi 
River.  Isolated  forests  are  scattered  in  northern  Ala- 
bama, Louisiana,  and  Texas. 

The  trees  are  tall,  often  exceeding  one  hundred  feet  in 
height;  with  trunks  slender  in  proportion,  rarely  reaching 
three  feet  in  diameter.  The  narrow,  irregular  head  is 
formed  of  short  stout  twisted  limbs  on  the  upper  third  of 


THE  PINES  233 

the  trunk.  The  leaves  are  from  twelve  to  eighteen  inches 
long,  forming  dense  tufts  at  the  ends  of  the  branches. 
Being  flexible  they  droop  and  sway  on  the  ends  of  erect 
branches  like  shining  fountains,  their  emerald  lightened 
by  the  silvery  sheaths  that  invest  each  group  of  three. 

Sapling  longleaf  pines  have  recently  entered  the  market 
for  Christmas  greens  in  Northern  cities.  This  threatens 
the  renewal  of  longleaf  forests  that  have  fallen  to  the  axe  of 
the  lumberman.  Unless  Federal  restriction  comes  to  the 
rescue,  there  is  little  hope  of  saving  this  young  growth,  for 
nothing  can  exceed  in  beauty  a  three-foot  sapling  of  long- 
leaf  pine  as  a  Christmas  decoration. 

The  lumber  of  this  species  is  the  "Southern  pine"  of  the 
builder.  Heavy,  strong,  yellowish  brown,  durable,  it  has 
a  tremendous  vogue  for  flooring  and  the  interior  finish  of 
buildings.  It  is  used  in  the  construction  of  railway  cars. 
Its  durability  in  contact  with  water  accounts  for  its  use  i\ 
bridge-building,  and  for  masts  and  spars  of  vessels.  A 
great  deal  of  this  lumber  is  exported  for  use  in  European 
shipyards.  It  has  replaced  the  dwindling  supply  of  white 
pine  for  building  purposes  throughout  the  North,  and  the 
strong  demand  for  it  has  been  followed  by  lumbering  of  the 
most  destruciive  and  w^asteful  type,  because  the  forests  are 
owned  privately. 

In  the  early  days  the  American  colonists  in  Virginia 
tapped  the  longleaf  pine,  collected  the  resin  from  the 
bleeding  wounds,  and  boiled  it  down  for  pitch  and  tar. 
These  crude  beginnings  established  an  industry  nowknowTi 
as  the  "orcharding"  of  the  longleaf  pine.  After  a  century 
of  wastefulness  and  wanton  destruction  of  the  trees,  it  has 
become  patent  to  all  that  scientific  methods  must  be  re- 
sorted to  in  the  production  of  turpentine  and  other  pro- 


234  TREES 

ducts  derived  from  the  living  trees.  Otherwise  the  dwind- 
ling industry  will  soon  come  to  an  end. 

Resin  is  the  sap  of  the  tree.  The  first  problem  is  to 
draw  it  in  a  manner  least  wasteful  of  the  product,  and  least 
dangerous  to  the  life  of  the  tree.  The  second  process  is  the 
melting  of  the  collected  resin  in  a  still  and  the  drawing  off 
of  the  volatile  turpentine.  What  is  left  solidifies  and  is 
known  as  rosin. 

"Boxing"  the  trees  was  the  cutting  of  a  grooved  incision 
low  on  the  trunk,  with  a  hollow  at  the  base  of  the  vertical 
trough  to  hold  the  discharge  of  the  bleeding  sap-wood. 
Resin-gatherers  visited  the  tapped  trees  and  emptied  the 
pockets  into  buckets  by  means  of  a  ladle.  They  also 
scraped  away  the  hardened  sap  and  widened  the  wounds  to 
induce  the  flow  from  new  tissues.  This  method  cost  the  life 
of  the  tree  in  two  or  three  years,  and  it  became  a  prey  to 
disease  and  a  menace  to  the  whole  forest,  as  fuel  for  fires 
accidentally  started.  Nowadays,  all  reasonable  owners  of 
longleaf  pine  have  discarded  the  old-fashioned  boxing  and 
installed  methods  approved  by  the  Department  of 
Forestry. 

Tar  was  formerly  derived  from  the  slow  burning  of  wood 
in  a  clay-lined  pit.  The  branches,  roots  and  other  lumber 
refuse,  cut  in  small  sizes  were  heaped  in  a  compact  mound 
and  covered  with  sods  and  earth.  Smoldering  fires  soon  in- 
duced a  flow  of  smoky  tar,  thick  as  molasses,  in  the  bottom 
of  the  pit.  In  due  time  the  flow  ceased,  the  fires  went  out, 
and  charcoal  was  the  result  of  this  slow  burning.  Remov- 
ing the  charcoal,  the  tar  became  available  for  various  pur- 
poses; boiled  until  it  lost  its  liquid  character,  it  became 
tough  sticky  pitch.  This  primitive  pit  method  of  extract- 
ing tar  and  making  charcoal  has  been  abandoned  wherever 


THE  PINES  235 

intelligence  governs  the  industry,  and  distillation  processes 
have  been  installed. 


The  Shortleaf  Pine 
P.  echinata.  Mill. 

The  shortleaf  pine  ranks  second  to  the  longleaf  in  im- 
portance to  the  lumber  industries  of  the  East  and  South. 
It  ranges  from  Staten  Island,  New  York,  to  north  Florida, 
and  west  through  West  Virginia,  eastern  Tennessee, 
southern  Missouri,  Louisiana  and  eastern  Texas.  It 
reaches  its  largest  size  and  greatest  abundance  west  of  the 
Mississippi  River,  where  great  forests,  practically  un- 
touched thirty  years  ago,  have  become  the  centre  of  the 
"yellow  pine'*  industry,  out  of  which  vast  fortunes  have 
been  made.  The  wood  is  preferred  by  builders,  because  it 
is  less  rich  in  resin,  softer  and  therefore  more  easily  worked. 
Young  trees  yield  turpentine  and  pitch,  and  with  the  long- 
leaf  and  the  Cuban  pine  much  forest  growth  has  suffered 
destruction  in  the  production  of  these  commodities. 

The  slender  tree  equals  the  longleaf  in  height  and  bears 
its  dark  green  leaves  in  clusters  of  twos  and  threes,  scat- 
tered on  short  branches  that  form  a  narrow  loose  head. 
The  pale  green,  stout  branchlets  are  lightened  by  the  silvery 
sheaths  of  the  young  leaves  (see  illustrations,  pages  2H-215) 
which  are  short  only  in  comparison  with  the  companion 
species,  the  longleaf.  The  cones  are  abundant;  the  seeds 
numerous,  winged  for  flight,  retaining  their  vitality  longer 
tlian  most  pine  seeds.  The  tree  is  less  sensitive  to  in- 
juries and  has  the  propensity,  unusual  in  the  pine  family, 
of  throwing  up  suckers  from  the  roots.  In  open  com- 
petition, this  pine  will  hold  its  own  against  the  invasion  of 


236  TREES 

other  trees,  if  only  allowed  to  do  so.  Much  of  the  de- 
forested territory,  let  alone,  will  cover  itself  with  a  ripe 
crop  of  shortleaf  pine  lumber  in  a  hundred  years. 

The  Cuban  Pine 
P.  Caribaea,  Morelet 

The  Cuban  pine  stands  third  in  the  triumvirate  of  lum- 
ber pines  of  the  South.  This  is  the  "swamp  pine"  or 
"slash  pine,"  found  in  the  coast  regions  from  South  Caro- 
lina throughout  Florida,  and  along  the  Gulf  Coast  to  the 
Pearl  River  in  Louisiana.  It  is  a  beautiful  pine — tall, 
with  dense  crown  of  dark  green  leaves,  in  twos  and  threes, 
eight  to  twelve  inches  long,  falling  at  the  end  of  their 
second  season,  before  they  lose  their  brightness.  A  large 
part  of  the  turpentine  of  commerce  has  been  derived  from 
these  coast  forests,  as  well  as  lumber,  which  takes  its 
place  in  the  Northern  market  with  the  longleaf  and  the 
shortleaf. 

Natural  reforestation  has  taken  place  in  the  Southeast, 
and  a  large  part  of  the  turpentine  exported  by  Georgia  and 
South  Carolina  to-day,  is  from  second-growth  Cuban  pine, 
on  land  from  which  the  lumber  companies  have  stripped 
the  virgin  growth. 

The  Loblolly  Pine 

P.  Taeda,  Linn. 

The  loblolly  or  old  field  pine  chooses  land  generally  sterile 
and  otherwise  worthless.  It  grows  in  swamps  along  the 
Atlantic  coast,  from  New  Jersey  through  the  CaroHnas, 
and  follows  the  Gulf  from  Tampa  Bay  into  Texas.  In- 
land, it  is  found  from  the  Carolinas  to  Arkansas  and 


THE  PINES  237 

Louisiana.  It  has  remarkable  vitality  of  seed  and  seed- 
lings, which  do  equally  well  on  sterile  uplands,  on  water- 
soaked  ground,  or  where  soil  is  light  and  sandy.  It  is  very 
apt  to  take  possession  of  land  once  cleared  for  agriculture. 
The  young  trees  crowd  together  and  grow  with  tre- 
mendous vigor  the  first  years  of  their  lives,  successfully 
holding  large  tracts  in  pure  forests.  The  limbs  are  short, 
thick,  matted,  forming  a  compact  rounded  head;  the  leaves 
slender,  stiff,  twisted,  pale-green,  six  to  nine  inches  long,  in 
groups  of  threes.  The  wood  is  rich  in  resin,  but  differs 
greatly  in  quality  with  age  and  the  fertility  of  the  soil. 
"Rosemary  pine"  was  heavy,  hard,  close-grained,  with  a 
thin  rim  of  soft  sap-wood.  This  famous  lumber,  preferred 
by  shipbuilders  of  many  countries  for  masts,  grew  in  the 
virgin  forest  of  the  Carolinas.  Giants  were  cut  in  the  rich 
marsh  lands  back  from  the  Sounds.  But  the  small  lob- 
lolly pine,  grown  on  sandy  soil,  is  but  third-grade  lumber, 
the  sap-wood  three  times  as  thick  as  the  heart- wood  and  ex- 
ceedingly coarse-grained.  One  merit  has  recently  been 
discovered  in  this  lumber,  that  formerly  blackened  before 
it  was  seasoned,  by  the  invasion  of  a  fungous  growth.  It 
quickly  absorbs  creosote,  which  renders  it  immune,  from 
deca3\  It  is  used  in  the  building  of  docks,  cars,  boats,  and 
locally  in  house-building.  Its  wood  makes  a  sharp,  quick 
heat  wh'^n  dried.  It  is  used  in  bakeries  and  brick  kilns, 
and  in  charcoal-burning. 

The  Pitch  Pine 

P.   rigida.   Mill. 

The  pitch  pine  goes  down  to  the  very  water's  edge  on  the 
sand-dunes  along  the  New-England  Coast,  and  spreads  on 


238  TREES 

worthless  land  from  New  Brunswick  to  Georgia  and  west 
to  Ontario  and  Kentucky.  Occasionally  in  cultivation  the 
tree  is  symmetrical,  and  grows  to  considerable  size.  In  the 
most  favorable  situations,  however,  it  rarely  exceeds  fifty 
feet  in  height,  with  gnarled  rough  branches,  oftenest  irreg- 
ular in  form  and  becoming  painfully  grotesque  with  age. 
The  persistence  of  its  clustered  black  cones  adds  to  the 
tree's  ugliness;  and  the  tufted,  scant  foliage  has  a  sickly 
yellowish-green  color  when  new,  and  becomes  darker  and 
twisted  the  second  year.  The  cones  are  armed  with  stout 
thorns  and  often  remain  on  the  trees  ten  or  twelve  years. 
The  knots,  particularly,  are  rich  in  resin — the  dehght  of 
camping  parties.  "Pine-knots"  and  "candle wood"  are 
household  necessities  in  regions  where  these  trees  are  the 
prevailing  species  of  pine. 

Starved  as  is  its  existence,  the  pitch  pine  springs  up  with 
amazing  vigor  after  a  fire.  Suckers  are  sent  up  about  the 
roots  of  the  fire-killed  trees,  and  the  wind  scatters  the  seeds 
broadcast  for  a  new  crop.  The  chief  merit  of  the  tree  is 
that  it  grows  on  worthless  land,  and  holds  with  its  gnarled 
roots  the  shifting  sand-dunes  of  the  New-England  Coast 
better  than  any  other  tree. 

The  Gray  Pine 

P.  divaricata,  Sudw. 

The  gray  pine  goes  farther  north  than  any  other  pine, 
following  the  McKenzie  River  to  the  Arctic  Circle.  From 
Nova  Scotia  to  the  Athabasca  River,  it  covers  barren 
ground,  reaching  its  greatest  height,  seventy  feet,  in  pure 
forests  north  of  Lake  Superior.  In  Michigan  it  forms  the 
"jack-pine  plains "  of  the  Lower  Peninsula.     As  a  rule  it  is 


THE  PINES  239 

a  crouching,  sprawling  tree,  its  twigs  covered  with  scant 
short  clingy  leaves  in  twos,  averaging  an  inch  in  length. 
The  wood  is  a  great  boon  to  the  regions  this  tree  inhabits. 
It  is  light,  soft,  weak,  and  close-grained;  used  for  posts,  rail- 
road ties,  building  material  and  fuel.  Its  seeds  germinate 
better  from  cones  that  have  been  scorched  by  fire. 

The  Digger  Pine 

P.  Sabiniana,  Dougl. 

The  digger  pine  is  a  western  California  tree  of  the  semi- 
arid  foothill  country.  Gray-green,  sparse  foliage  on  the 
gnarled  branches  gives  the  tree  a  forlorn  starved  look, 
as  it  stands  or  crouches,  singly  or  in  scattered  groups, 
along  the  gravelly  sun-baked  slopes.  The  great  cones, 
six  to  ten  inches  long,  fairly  loading  the  branches,  express 
most  emphatically  the  vigor  of  the  tree.  The  thickened 
scales  protrude  at  a  wide  angle  from  the  central  core,  and 
each  bears  a  strong  beak,  triangular,  flattened  like  a 
shark's  tooth,  but  curved.  The  rich  oily  nuts,  as  big  as 
lima  beans,  furnish  a  nourishing  food  to  the  Indians. 
The  Digger  tribe  harvested  these  nuts,  and  the  pioneer 
gave  the  tree  the  tribal  name. 

The  Western  Pitch  Pine 

P.  Coulteri,  D.  Don. 

The  Western  pitch  pine,  most  abundant  in  the  San 
Bernardino  and  San  Jacinto  Mountains,  at  elevations 
of  about  a  mile  above  the  sea,  has  cones  not  imlike  those 
of  the  digger  pine,  in  the  armament  of  their  scales. 
These  are  notable  by  being  the  heaviest  fruits  borne  by 


240  TREES 

any  pine  tree.  Occasionally  they  exceed  fifteen  inches  in 
length  and  weigh  eight  pounds.  The  seeds  are  one-half 
an  inch  in  length,  not  counting  the  thin  wing,  which  is 
often  an  inch  long. 

The  leaves  of  this  "big-cone"  pine  match  the  cones. 
They  are  stout,  stiff,  dark  blue-green,  six  to  sixteen  inches 
long,  three  in  a  bundle,  which  has  a  sheath  an  inch  or  more 
in  length.  Crowded  on  the  ends  of  the  branches,  these 
leaves  would  entitle  this  tree  to  qualify  as  a  "fox-tail" 
pine,  except  for  the  fact  that  the  foliage  persists  into  the 
third  and  fourth  year,  which  clothes  the  branches  far 
back  toward  the  trunk  and  gives  the  tree  a  luxuriant 
crown.  The  dry  slopes  and  ridges  of  the  Coast  Ranges  of 
California  are  beautified  by  small  groves  and  scattered 
specimens  of  this  striking  and  picturesque  pine,  so  unlike 
its  neighbors.  Its  wood  is  used  only  for  fuel.  In  Euro- 
pean countries  this  is  a  popular  ornamental  pine,  planted 
chiefly  for  its  great  golden-brown  cones. 

The  Knob-cone  Pine 

P.  attenuata,  Lemm. 

The  knob-cone  pine  inhabits  the  Coast  Ranges  from  the 
San  Bernardino  Mountains  northward  on  the  western 
slopes  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  Cascade  Mountains, 
into  southwestern  Oregon,  where  it  forms  pure  forests 
over  large  areas,  its  altitude  limit  being  four  thousand 
feet.  It  is  a  tall  slim  tree  of  the  hot  dry  fire-swept  foot- 
hills, and  it  comes  again  with  absolute  certainty  after 
forest  fires.  The  clustered  cones,  three  to  six  inches  long, 
are  amazingly  hard  and  do  not  open  at  maturity,  but  wait 
for  the  death  of  the  tree.     Leaves  three  to  seven  inches 


THE  PINES  241 

long,  in  clusters  of  three,  firm,  rigid,  pale  yellow  or  bluish 
green,  cover  the  tree  with  a  sparse  thin  foliage-mass; 
but  the  branches,  new  and  old,  are  covered  with  cones, 
many  of  which  are  being  swallowed  up  by  the  growth 
of  wood  on  trunk  and  limb.  Thirty  or  forty  years  these 
cones  may  hang,  their  seeds  never  released  and  never  losing 
their  vitality,  until  fire  destroys  the  tree.  Then  the  scales 
open  and  the  winged  seeds  are  scattered  broadcast. 
They  germinate  and  cover  the  deforested  slopes  with  a 
crop  of  knob-cone  pine  saplings  that  soon  claim  all  stand- 
ing room  and  cover  the  scars  of  fire  completely. 


The  Monterey  Pine 

P.  radiata,  D.  Don. 

The  Monterey  pine,  like  its  companion,  the  Torrey  pine, 
is  restricted  to  a  very  narrow  area.  They  grow  together 
on  Santa  Rosa  Island.  At  Point  Pinos,  south  of  Monterey 
Bay,  this  tree  stands  a  hundred  feet  in  height,  with  trunks 
occasionally  five  to  six  feet  in  diameter,  its  branches 
spreading  into  a  round  luxuriant,  though  narrow,  head. 
From  Pescadero  to  San  Simeon  Bay,  in  a  narrow  belt  a 
few  miles  wide,  and  on  the  neighboring  islands,  this 
tree  finds  its  limited  natural  range;  but  the  horticulturist 
has  noted  the  silvery  sheen  of  its  young  growth  and  the 
rich  bright  green  that  never  dulls  in  its  foliage.  Its  quick 
growth  and  handsome  form  in  cultivation  make  it  the 
most  desirable  pine  for  park  and  shade  planting  in  Califor- 
nia. Indeed  it  is  a  favorite  park  tree  north  to  Vancouver 
along  the  Coast.  It  has  been  introduced  into  Europe 
and  is  occasionally  met  in  parks  in  the  Southeastern  states. 


242  TREES 

The  Western  Yellow  Pine 

P.  ponderosa.  Laws. 

The  Western  yellow  pine  forms  on  the  Colorado  Plateau 
the  most  extensive  pine  forests  of  the  American  continent. 
Mountain  slopes,  high  mesas,  dry  canyon  sides,  even 
swamps,  if  they  occur  at  elevations  above  twenty-five 
hundred  feet,  furnish  suitable  habitats  for  this  amazing 
species,  in  some  of  its  varying  forms.  From  British 
Columbia  and  the  Black  Hills  it  follows  the  mountains 
through  the  Coast  Ranges,  Sierras,  and  the  Great  Conti- 
nental Divide,  to  the  highlands  of  Texas  and  into  Mexico, 
forming  the  most  extensive  pine  forests  in  the  world. 
All  sorts  of  construction  work  draw  upon  this  wonderful 
natural  supply  of  timber,  from  the  droughty  western 
counties  of  the  Dakotas,  Nebraska  and  Texas,  to  the 
Pacific  Coast. 

The  typical  tree  has  thick  plates  of  cinnamon-red  bark, 
a  massive  trunk,  five  to  eight  feet  in  diameter,  one  hundred 
to  two  hundred  feet  high,  with  many  short,  thick,  forked 
branches  in  a  spire-like  head.  In  arid  regions  the  trunk 
is  shorter  and  the  head  becomes  broad  and  round-topped. 
Near  the  timber  line  and  in  swamps,  the  trees  are  stunted 
and  the  bark  is  nearly  black. 

The  leaves  of  this  pine  tree  are  two  or  three  in  a  bundle, 
stout,  dark  yellow-green,  five  to  eleven  inches  long,  decid- 
uous during  their  third  season.  Their  color  has  given  the 
name  to  the  species,  for  the  wood  is  not  yellow,  but  fight 
red,  with  nearly  white  sap-wood. 

On  the  way  to  the  Yosemite,  the  traveler  meets  the 
yellow  pine — splendid  tracts  of  it — with  the  giant  sugar 


THE  PINES  243 

pine,  in  open  park-like  areas,  where  each  individual  tree 
has  room  to  manifest  the  noble  strength  of  its  tall  shaft. 

The  flowers  appear  in  May,  brightening  the  even  color 
of  the  shiny  leaves  with  their  pink  or  brown  staminate 
clusters  two  or  three  inches  wide.  The  crimson  pistillate 
cones  hide  at  the  ends  of  the  branches,  lengthening  into 
fruits  three  to  ten  inches  in  length,  and  half  as  wide. 
Strong,  re-curving  tips,  armed  with  slender  prickles,  are 
seen  in  the  scales  of  the  reddish-brown  cones  that  fall  soon 
after  they  spread  and  liberate  the  winged  seeds.  These  are 
produced  in  abundance,  are  scattered  widely  by  the  wind, 
and  accomplish  the  renewal  of  these  mountain  forests. 

The  bark  is  usually  very  thick  at  the  bases  of  the  trunks, 
reaching  eighteen  inches  on  the  oldest  trees.  With  this 
cloak  wrapped  about  its  living  cambium,  the  yellow  pine 
is  able,  better  than  most  trees,  to  survive. a  sweeping 
forest  fire. 

Botanists  have  found  P.  ponderosa  extremely  variable, 
and  they  quarrel  among  themselves  about  species  and 
variety,  for  the  tree  endures  many  climates,  adapts  itself 
to  varying  conditions  and  develops  a  type  for  each 
habitat  and  region.  In  old  lake  basins  on  the  Sierra 
slopes,  "variety  Jeffreyi,  Vasey,"  is  the  name  given  to  the 
gigantic  yellow  pine,  which  there  finds  food  and  moisture  in 
abundance  and  reaches  its  finest  proportions  and  its 
greatest  lumber  value. 

In  the  Rocky  Mountains,  "variety  scopidorum,  En- 
gelm.,"  is  the  type.  "But  all  its  forms  can  be  traced  to  a 
common  origin  and  so  the  parent  species  stands;  and 
despite  man's  devastating  axe  the  yellow  pine  flourishes 
in  the  drenching  rains  and  fog  of  the  northern  coast  at 
the  level  of  the  sea,  in  the  snow-laden  blasts  of  the  moun- 


I 


244  TREES 

tains,  in  the  white  glaring  sunshine  of  the  interior  plateaus 
and  plains,  and  on  the  borders  of  mirage-haunted  deserts, 
volcanoes,  and  lava  beds, — waving  its  bright  plumes  in 
the  hot  winds  undaunted,  blooming  every  year  for  cen- 
turies, and  tossing  big  ripe  cones  among  the  cinders  and 
ashes  of  nature's  hearths."     {John  Muir,) 

The  Scrub  Pine 

P.  contortay  Loud. 

The  scrub  pine  is  the  humble  parent  of  one  of  the  splen- 
did Western  lumber  pines,  whose  description  comes  under 
its  varietal  name.  Down  the  coast  of  Alaska,  usually  in 
sphagnum  bogs,  on  sand-dunes,  in  tide-pools  and  deep 
swamps  to  Cape  Mendocino,  the  indomitable,  altogether- 
admirable  scrub  pine  holds  its  own  against  cold,  salt  air 
and  biting  arctic  blasts.  No  matter  how  stunted,  gnarly 
and  round-shouldered  these  trees  are,  one  thing  they  do, 
often  when  only  a  few  inches  high:  they  hear  cones,  and 
keep  them  for  years;  and  each  season  add  more.  Up 
from  the  sea  the  scrub  pine  climbs,  ascending  the  Coast 
Ranges  and  western  slopes  of  the  Cascade  Mountains, 
changing  its  habit  to  a  tree  twenty  to  thirty  feet  tall  with 
thick  branches  and  dark  red-brown  bark,  checked  into 
oblong  plates.  Gummy  exudations  of  this  pitch  pine 
make  it  peculiarly  liable  to  running  fires.  Thousands 
of  acres  are  destroyed  every  summer,  but  they  seize  the 
land  again  and  soon  cover  it  with  the  young  growth. 
This  happens  because  the  burned  trees  drop  their  cones, 
which  open  and  set  free  the  seeds  which  have  never  lost 
their  vitality. 

In   all  the  vast  region  over  which  this  vagi'ant  tree 


THE  PINES  245 

swarms,  it  furnishes  firewood  and  shelter.  The  pioneer 
blesses  it,  and  a  great  multitude  of  wild  things,  both  plant 
and  animal,  maintain  their  lives  in  comfort  and  security 
because  of  its  protection. 

The  lodge-pole  pine  or  tamarack  pine  is  but  a  variety 
{Murrayana)  of  P.  contorta,  that  grows  in  forests  on  both 
slopes  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  of  Montana  and  Wyoming, 
at  elevations  of  from  seven  to  eight  thousand  feet,  and 
stretches  away  into  British  Columbia  and  Alaska,  and 
southward  to  the  San  Jacinto  Range.  Between  eight 
thousand  and  nine  thousand  five  hundred  feet  in  altitude, 
along  the  Sierra  Nevada  in  California,  it  reaches  its  great- 
est size  and  beauty,  and  forms  extensive  dense  forests. 
The  young  trees  have  very  slender  trunks,  and  often  stand 
crowded  together  like  wheat  on  the  prairie.  An  average 
forest  specimen  is  five  inches  in  diameter,  when  thirty 
or  forty  feet  in  height.  No  wonder  the  Indian  in  Wyo- 
ming and  Colorado  called  it  "the  lodge-pole  pine,"  for 
their  supple  trunks  fitted  these  trees,  while  yet  saplings, 
to  support  the  lodge  he  built. 

Richer,  moister  ground  nourishes  this  fortimate  off- 
spring of  the  scrub  pine.  The  two-leaved  foliage,  usually 
about  two  inches  long,  wears  a  cheerful  yellow-green,  wliile 
the  parent  tree  is  dark  and  sombre,  with  leaves  an 
inch  in  length.  The  hard,  strong,  brown  wood  of  con- 
torta  contrasts  strikingly  with  that  of  its  variety,  which  is 
light  yellow  or  nearly  white — soft,  weak,  straight-grained 
and  easily  worked.  Its  abundance  in  regions  where  other 
timber  is  scarce,  brings  it  into  general  use  for  construction 
work.  It  also  furnishes  railroad  ties,  mine  timbers  and 
fuel,  with  the  minimum  of  labor,  since  trunks  of  proper 
sizes  can  easily  be  selected. 


246  TREES 

The  Indians,  whose  food  supply  was  always  precarious, 
gathered  branches  and  made  a  soft  pulp  of  the  inner  bark, 
scraped  out  in  the  growing  season.  This  they  baked,  after 
shaping  it  into  huge  cakes,  in  pit  ovens  built  of  stones,  and 
heated  for  hours  by  burning  in  them  loads  of  fire- wood. 
When  the  embers  were  burned  out,  the  oven  was  cleaned 
and  the  cakes  put  in.  Later  they  were  smoked  with  a 
damp  fire  of  moss,  which  preserved  them  indefinitely. 
"Hard  bread"  of  this  type  provisioned  the  Indian's  canoe 
on  long  trips.  Inedible  until  boiled,  it  was  a  staple  winter 
food  at  home  and  on  long  expeditions,  among  various 
tribes  of  the  Northwest. 

The  Red  Pine 

P,  resinosa.  Ait. 

The  red  pine,  also  called  the  "Norway  pine"  for  no  par- 
ticular reason,  is  something  of  an  anomaly.  Its  wood  is 
soft  like  that  of  the  white  pine  with  which  it  grows,  and 
though  resinosa  means  "full  of  resin,"  it  is  not  so  rich  as 
several  other  pitch  pines.  Its  paired  leaves  and  red  bark 
reveal  its  kinship  with  the  Scotch  pine,  a  European  species, 
very  common  in  cultivation  in  America. 

Seemingly  intermediate  between  soft  and  hard  pines, 
P.  resinosa  appeals  to  lumbermen  and  landscape  gardeners 
because  it  embodies  the  good  points  of  both  classes.  No 
handsomer  species  grows  in  the  forests,  from  New  Bruns- 
wick to  Minnesota  and  south  into  Pennsylvania.  The 
sturdy  red  trunk  makes  a  bright  color  contrast  with  the 
broad  symmetrical  pyramid  of  boughs  clothed  in  abundant 
foliage.  The  paired,  needle-like  leaves,  dark  green  and 
shining,  are  six  inches  in  length.     The  flowers  are  abund- 


See  paje  2h8 
THE    SPINY    FOLIAGE    AND    FAST-CLINGING    CONES 
OF    THE    BLACK    SPRUCE 


THE  SPRUCES  247 

ant  and  bright  red,  more  showy  than  is  ordinary  in  the  pine 
family.  Brown  cones  one  to  three  inches  long  with  thin 
miarmed  scales,  discharge  their  wdnged  seeds  in  early 
autumn,  but  cling  to  the  branches  until  the  following 
summer. 

The  wood  of  red  pine  is  pale  red,  light  in  weight,  closer 
grained  with  yellowish  or  nearly  white  sap-wood.  Logs  a 
hundred  feet  and  more  in  length  used  to  be  shipped  out  of 
Canadian  woods  to  England.  Singularly  free  from  large 
knots  and  other  blemishes,  they  made  huge  spars  and 
masts  of  vessels,  as  well  as  piles  for  dockyards,  bridges, 
etc.  Other  woods  have  proved  more  durable,  and  the 
largest  red  pine  timber  has  been  harvested.  So  its  im- 
portance in  the  lumber  trade  has  declined. 

But  in  cultivation  the  red  pine  holds  its  own  for  its  quick 
growth,  its  hardiness,  its  lusty  vigor  and  its  beauty  of  color 
contrasts.  It  grows  on  sterile  ground  exposed  to  the  sea, 
forming  groves  of  great  beauty  where  other  pines  would 
languish  and  die.  For  shelter  belts,  inland,  it  is  equally 
dependable,  and  as  specimen  trees  in  parks  and  gardens  it 
has  few  equals.  At  no  season  of  the  year  does  it  lose  its 
fresh  look  of  health.  Young  trees  come  readily  from  seed, 
and  throughout  their  lives  they  are  unusually  free  from  in- 
juries by  insects  and  fungi. 


THE  SPRUCES 

The  distinguishing  mark  of  spruce  trees  is  the  woody  or 
horny  projection  on  which  the  leaf  is  set.  Look  at  the 
twigs  of  a  tree  which  you  think  may  be  a  fir  or  a  spruce. 
Wherever  the  leaves  have  fallen,  the  spruce  twig  is  rough- 


243  THEES 

ened  by  these  spirally  arranged  leaf-brackets.  Leaf-sears 
on  a  fir  twig  are  level  with  the  bark,  leaving  the  twig 
smooth.  Spruce  twigs  are  always  roughened,  as  described 
above. 

Most  spruce  trees  have  distinctly  four-angled  leaves, 
sharp-pointed  and  distributed  spirally  around  the  shoot, 
not  two-ranked  like  fir  leaves.  They  are  all  pyramidal 
trees  with  flowers  and  fruits  of  the  coniferous  type.  The 
cones  are  always  pendent  and  there  is  an  annual  crop.  The 
wood  is  soft,  not  conspicuously  resinous,  straight-grained 
and  valuable  as  lumber. 

The  genus  picea  comprises  eighteen  species,  seven  of 
which  belong  to  American  forests.  These  include  some 
of  the  most  beautiful  of  coniferous  trees. 

The  Norway  Spruce 

Picea  excelsa.  Link. 

The  Norway  spruce  {see  illustration,  page  2^6)  is  the 
commonest  species  in  cultivation.  It  is  extensively 
planted  for  wind-breaks,  hedges  and  shelter  belts,  where 
its  long  lower  arms  rest  on  the  ground  and  the  upper  limbs 
shingle  over  the  lower  ones,  forming  a  thick  leafy  shelter 
against  drifting  snow  and  winds. 

The  Black  Spruce 

P.  Mariana,  B.  S.  &  P. 

The  black  spruce  is  a  ragged,  unkempt  dingy  tree,  with 
short  drooping  branches,  downy  twigs,  and  stiff  dark  blue- 
green  foliage,  scarcely  half  an  inch  long.  Its  cones,  least 
in  size  of  all  the  spruce  tribe,  are  about  one  inch  long  and 


THE  SPRUCES  249 

they  remain  on  the  branches  for  years     {See  illustration, 
page  2^7). 

Rarely  higher  than  fifty  feet,  these  scraggly  undersized 
spruces  are  ignored  by  horticulturists  and  lumbermen,  but 
the  wood-pulp  man  has  taken  them  eagerly.  The  soft 
weak  yellow  wood,  converted  into  paper,  needs  very  little 
bleaching.  From  the  far  North  the  species  covers  large 
areas  throughout  Canada,  choosing  cold  bogs  and  swamp 
borders,  or  well-drained  bottom  lands.  In  the  United 
States  it  extends  south  along  the  mountains  to  Virginia 
and  to  central  Wisconsin  and  Michigan. 

The  Red  Spruce 

P.  rubens,  Sarg. 

The  red  spruce  forms  considerable  forests  from  New- 
foundland to  North  Carolina,  following  the  mountains  and 
growing  best  in  well-drained  upland  soil.  This  Eastern 
spruce  is  more  deserving  of  cultivation  than  the  one  just 
described,  for  its  leaves,  dark  yellow-green  and  shining, 
make  the  tree  cheerful-looking.  The  slender  downy  twigs 
are  bright  red,  and  there  is  a  warm  reddish  tone  in  the 
brown  bark.  The  winter  buds  are  ruddy;  the  flowers 
purple;  and  the  glossy  cones,  one  to  two  inches  long,  change 
from  purple  to  pale  reddish  brown  before  they  mature  and 
drop  to  pieces.  Even  in  crowded  forests  this  spruce  keeps 
its  lower  limbs  and  looks  hale  and  fresh  by  the  prompt 
casting  of  its  early  ripening  cones. 

The  pale  red  wood  is  peculiarl}^  adapted  for  sounding- 
boards  of  musical  instruments.  It  has  been  used  locally 
in  buildings,  but  of  late  the  wood-pulp  mills  get  most  of 
this  timber. 


250  TREES 

The  Engelmann  Spruce 

P.  Engelmanni,  Engelm. 

The  Engelmann  spruce  is  the  white  spruce  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  and  the  Cascade  Range  of  Washington  and 
Oregon,  which  forms  great  forests  on  high  mountain  slopes 
from  Montana  and  Idaho  to  New  Mexico  and  Arizona. 
Always  in  damp  places,  this  thin-barked  beautiful  tree  is 
safest,  from  fire.  The  leaves  are  blue-green,  soft  and 
flexible  but  with  sharp  callous  tips.  The  cones  are  about 
two  inches  long,  their  thin  scales  narrowing  to  the  blunt 
tips.  Each  year  a  crop  of  seeds  is  cast  and  the  cones  fall. 
Running  fires  destroy  the  seed  crop  with  the  standing 
trees,  making  renewal  of  the  species  impossible  in  the 
bumt-over  tracts.  For  this  reason,  this  beautiful  spruce 
tree  is  oftenest  found  on  the  higher  altitudes,  or  where  wet 
ground  and  banks  of  snow  defend  it  from  its  arch  enemy. 
The  tree  is  satisfactory  in  cultivation,  but  never  equal  to 
the  wild-forest  specimens.  The  wood  is  used  locally  for 
building  purposes,  for  fuel  and  charcoal. 

The  Blue  Spruce 

P.  Parryana,  Sarg. 

The  blue  spruce  well  known  in  Eastern  lawns  as  the 
"Colorado  blue  spruce,"  is  a  crisp-looking,  handsome  tree, 
broadly  pyramidal,  with  rigid  branches  and  stout  horny- 
pointed  leaves,  blue-green  to  silvery  white,  exceeding  an 
inch  in  length.  At  home  on  the  mountains  of  Colorado, 
Utah  and  Wyoming,  it  reaches  a  hundred  to  a  hundred  and 
fifty  feet  in  height  and  a  trunk  diameter  of  three  feet,  and 


THE  FIRS  251 

becomes  thin  and  ragged  at  maturity.  The  same  fate 
overtakes  tlie  trim  little  lawn  trees,  so  perfect  in  color  and 
symmetry  for  a  few  years. 

Tideland  Spruce 

P.  Sitckensis,  Carr. 

The  tideland  spruce  is  the  most  important  lumber  tree  in 
Alaska.  It  inhabits  the  coast  region  from  Cape  Mendo- 
cino, in  California,  northward;  and  is  abundant  on  wet, 
sandy  and  swampy  soil.  The  conspicuous  traits  of  this 
tree  are  its  strongly  buttressed  trunk,  one  hundred  to  two 
hundred  feet  tall,  often  greatly  swollen  at  the  base;  the 
graceful  sweep  of  its  wide  low-spreading  lower  limbs;  and 
the  constant  play  of  light  and  shadows  in  the  tree-top,  due 
to  the  lustrous  sheen  on  the  bright  foliage.  It  is  a  mag- 
nificent tree,  one  of  the  largest  and  most  beautiful  of  the 
Western  conifers,  indomitable  in  that  it  climbs  from  the 
sea-level  to  altitudes  three  thousand  feet  above,  and  fol- 
lows the  coast  farther  north  than  any  other  conifer. 


THE  FIRS 

In  a  forest  of  evergreens  the  spire  form,  needle  leaves, 
and  some  other  traits  belong  to  several  families.  To  dis- 
tinguish the  firs  from  the  spruces,  which  they  closely  re- 
semble in  form  and  foliage,  notice  the  position  of  the 
cones.  All  fir  trees  hold  their  ripe  cones  erect.  No  other 
family  with  large  cones  has  this  striking  characteristic. 
All  the  rest  of  the  conifers  have  pendent  cones,  except  the 
small-fruited  cypresses  and  arbor-vitaes. 


S52  TREES 

All  fir  trees  belong  to  the  genus  ahies,  whose  twenty-five 
species  are  distributed  from  the  Far  North  to  the  highlands 
of  tropical  regions  in  both  the  Eastern  and  Western  Hemis- 
pheres. All  are  tall  pyramidal  trees,  with  wide-spreading 
horizontal  limbs  bearing  thick  foliage  masses,  and 
with  bark  that  contains  vesicles  full  of  resinous  balsam. 
The  branches  grow  in  whorls  and  spread  like  fern  fronds, 
covered  for  eight  or  nine  years  with  the  persistent  leaves* 
Circular  scars  are  left  on  the  smooth  branches  when  they 
fall. 

The  leaves  are  the  distinguishing  character  of  the  genus 
when  cones  are  lacking.  They  are  usually  flat,  two-ranked 
on  the  twig,  without  stems,  and  blunt,  or  even  notched  at 
the  tip.  For  these  typical  leaves  one  must  look  on  the 
lower  sterile  branches  of  the  tree,  and  back  of  the  growing 
shoots,  where  leaves  are  apt  to  be  crowded  and  immature. 
The  cones  are  borne  near  the  tops  of  the  trees,  and  on  these 
branches  the  leaves  are  often  crowded  and  not  two- 
ranked  as  they  are  below.  The  flowers  of  fir  trees  are 
abundant  and  showy,  the  staminate  clusters  appearing  on 
the  under  sides  of  the  platforms  of  foliage;  the  pistillate 
held  erect  on  platforms  higher  up  on  the  tree's  spire.  Al- 
ways the  flowers  are  borne  on  the  shoots  of  the  previous 
season.  The  cone  fruits  are  cylindrical  or  ovoid,  ripening 
in  a  single  season  and  discharging  their  seeds  at  maturity. 
The  stout  tapering  axis  of  the  cone  persists  after  seeds  and 
scales  have  fallen. 

The  bark  of  fir  trees  is  thin,  smooth,  and  pale,  with 
abundant  resin  vesicles,  until  the  trees  are  well  grown.  As 
age  advances  the  bark  thickens  and  becomes  deeply  fur- 
rowed. The  wood  is  generally  pale,  coarse-grained,  and 
brittle. 


THE  FIRS  253 

The  Balsam  Fir 

Abies  balsamea.  Mill. 

The  balsam  fir  is  probably  best  known  as  the  typical 
Christmas  tree  of  the  Northeastern  states  and  the  source 
of  Canada  balsam,  used  in  laboratories  and  in  medicine. 
Fresh  leaves  stuff  the  balsam  pillows  of  summer  visitors 
to  the  North  Woods.  In  the  lumber  trade  and  in  horti- 
culture this  fir  tree  cuts  a  sorry  figure,  for  its  wood  is 
weak,  coarse,  and  not  durable,  and  in  cultivation  it  is  short- 
lived, and  early  loses  its  lower  limbs. 

Throughout  New  England,  northward  to  Labrador, 
and  southward  along  the  mountains  to  southwestern  Vir- 
ginia, this  tree  may  be  known  at  a  glance  by  its  two- 
ranked,  pale-lined  leaves,  lustrous  and  dark  green  above, 
one  half  to  one  and  one  half  inches  long,  sometimes 
notched  on  twigs  near  the  top  of  the  tree.  Rich  dark 
piu-ple  cones,  two  to  four  inches  long,  with  thin  plain- 
margined,  broad  scales,  stand  erect,  glistening  with  drops 
of  balsam,  on  branches  near  the  top  of  the  tree.  The 
same  balsam  exudes  from  bruises  in  the  smooth  bark. 
By  piercing  the  white  blisters  and  systematically  wound- 
ing branch  and  trunk,  the  limpid  balsam  is  made  to  flow 
freely,  and  is  collected  as  a  commercial  enterprise  in  some 
parts  of  Canada.  "Oil  of  fir"  also  is  obtained  from  the 
bark. 

The  Balsam  Fir 

A.  Fraseriy  Poir. 

This  balsam  fir,  much  more  luxuriant  in  foliage,  and 
worthier  of  cultivation  as  an  ornamental  tree,  is  native  to 


^54  TREES 

the  Appalacliian  Mountains  of  southwestern  Virginia, 
Tennessee  and  North  Carolina.  The  purple  cones  are 
ornamented  by  pale  yellow  cut-toothed  bracts  that  turn 
back  over  the  edge  of  the  plain  scale.  Limited  in  range, 
but  forming  forests  between  the  limits  of  four  and  six 
thousand  feet  in  altitude,  this  tree  is  confined  to  local 
uses  as  lumber  and  fuel. 

All  the  other  firs  of  America  are  Western,  and  among 
these  are  some  of  the  tree  giants  of  the  world. 


The  Red  Fir 

A,  magnifica,  A.  Murr. 

The  magnificent  red  fir  is  called  by  John  Muir  "the 
noblest  of  its  race."  In  its  splendid  shaft  that  reaches 
two  hundred  and  fifty  feet  in  height,  and  a  trunk  diameter 
of  seven  feet,  there  is  a  symmetry  and  perfection  of 
finish  throughout  that  is  achieved  by  no  other  tree.  One 
above  another  in  graduated  lengths  the  branches  spread 
in  level  collars,  the  oldest  drooping  on  the  groimd,  the 
rest  horizontal,  their  framework  always  five  main  branches 
that  carry  luxuriant  flat  plumes  of  silvery  needles.  Each 
leaf  is  almost  equally  four-sided,  ribbed  above  and  below, 
with  pale  lines  on  all  sides,  so  wide  as  to  make  the  new 
growth  silvery  throughout  the  season.  Later  these  leaves 
become  blue-green,  and  persist  for  about  ten  years. 
Only  on  the  lower  side  of  the  branch  are  the  leaves  two- 
ranked. 

The  bark  of  this  fir  tree  is  covered  with  dark  brown 
scales,  deeply  divided  into  broad  rounded  ridges,  broken 
by  cross  fissures  when  old.     Out  toward  the  tips  of  the 


THE  FIRS  255 

branches  the  bark  is  silvery  white.  In  mid-June  the 
flowers  appear,  the  staminate  in  profuse  clusters  against 
the  silvery  leaf-linings,  bright  red,  on  the  under  sides  of 
the  platforms.  It  is  a  blind  or  stupid  person  who  can 
travel  in  fir  woods  and  fail  to  notice  this  wonderful  flower 
pageant,  that  may  be  viewed  by  merely  looking  upward. 
The  pistillate  flowers,  greenish  yellow,  tipped  with  pink, 
are  out  of  sight  as  a  rule,  among  the  needles  in  the  tree-tops. 
They  ripen  into  tall  cylindrical  cones,  six  to  eight  inches 
long  and  half  as  wide,  that  fall  to  pieces  at  maturity, 
discharging  their  broad  thin  scales  wiith  the  purple  irides- 
cent winged  seeds. 

Pure  forests  of  this  splendid  fir  tree  are  found  in  southern 
Oregon  among  the  Cascade  Mountains,  between  five  and 
seven  thousand  feet  above  the  sea.  It  is  the  commonest 
species  in  the  forest  belt  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  between 
elevations  of  six  thousand  and  nine  thousand  feet.  From 
northern  California,  it  follows  the  western  slope  of  the 
Sierra  Nevada,  climbing  to  ten  thousand  feet  in  its 
southernmost  range.  A  variety,  Shastensis,  Lemm.,  is 
the  red  fir  with  bright  yellow  fringed  bracts  on  its  stout 
cones.  This  ornament  upon  its  fi-uits  seems  to  be  the 
chief  distinguishing  character  of  the  form  which  occurs 
with  the  parent  species  on  the  mountains  in  Oregon  and 
northern  Cahfomia,  and  recurs  in  the  southern  Sierra 
Nevada. 

The  best  defense  of  this  superb  red^r  is  the  comparative 
worthlessness  of  its  soft,  weak  wood.  Coarse  lumber 
for  cheap  buildings,  packing  oases  and  fuel  makes  the 
only  demands  upon  it.  In  European  parks  it  is  success- 
fully grown  as  an  ornamental  tree,  and  has  proved  haxdy 
in  eastern  Massachusetts. 


-256  TREES 

The  Noble  Fir 

A.  nohilis,  Lindl. 

The  noble  fir  or  red  fir  is  another  giant  of  the  Northwest. 
On  the  western  slopes  of  the  Cascade  Mountains  of  Wash- 
ington and  Oregon  it  reaches  occasionally  two  hundred 
and  fifty  feet  in  height,  differing  from  magnifica  in  being 
round-topped  instead  of  pyramidal  before  maturity.  Its 
red-brown  wood,  furrowed  bark  and  the  red  staminate 
flowers  justify  its  name.  The  twigs  are  red  and  velvety 
for  four  or  five  years.  The  leaves  are  deeply  grooved 
above,  rounded  and  obscurely  ribbed  on  the  lower  surface, 
blue-green,  often  silvery  through  their  first  season,  crowded 
and  curved  so  that  the  tips  point  away  from  the  end  of  the 
branch. 

The  oblong  cylindrical  cones,  four  to  ^ve  inches  long, 
are  velvety,  their  scales  covered  by  bracts,  shaped  and 
notched  like  a  scallop  shell,  with  a  forward-pointing  spine, 
exceeding  the  bract  in  length.  Forests  of  this  tree  at 
elevations  of  twenty-five  hundred  to  five  thousand  feet 
are  found  in  Washington  and  northern  Oregon,  from  which 
limited  quantities  of  the  brownish-red  wood  enter  the 
lumber  trade  under  the  name  of  "larch." 

The  White  Fir 

A,  grandis,  Lindl. 

The  white  fir  is  a  striking  figure,  from  its  silvery  lined, 
dark  green  foliage,  its  slender  pyramidal  form  that 
reaches  three  hundred  feet  in  height,  and  the  vivid  green 
of  its  mature  cones  that  are  destitute  of  ornament  and 


THE  FIRS  257 

slenderl}^  cylindrical.  From  Vancouver  Island  southward 
to  Mendocino  County  in  California,  this  tree  is  common 
from  the  sea  level  to  an  elevation  of  four  thousand  feet. 
Eastward  it  extends  into  Idaho,  climbing  to  seven  thous- 
and feet,  but  choosing  always  moist  soil  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  streams.  Various  uses,  wooden  wares,  packing  cases, 
and  fuel  consume  its  soft,  coarse  wood  to  a  limited  extent. 
The  delicate  grace  of  its  sweeping  down-curving  branches 
makes  it  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  our  Western  firs.  It 
grows  rapidly,  and  is  a  favorite  in  European  parks. 

The  White  Fir 

A.  concolor,  Lindl.  and  Gord. 

This  white  fir  is  a  giant  of  the  Sierras,  but  a  tree  of 
medium  height  in  the  Rocky  Mountains.  Its  leaves  are 
often  two  to  three  inches  long,  very  unusual  for  a  fir 
tree,  curving  to  an  erect  position,  pale  blue  or  silvery 
at  first,  becoming  dull  green  at  the  end  of  two  or  three 
years. 

On  the  California  Sierras,  this  silver  ^  tree  lifts  its 
narrow  spire  two  hundred  and  fifty  feet  tow^ard  the  sky 
and  waves  great  frondlike  masses  of  foliage  on  pale  gray 
branches.  As  a  much  smaller  tree,  it  is  found  in  the  arid 
regions  of  the  Great  Basin  and  of  southern  New  INIexico 
and  Arizona,  territory  which  no  other  fir  tree  invades. 
In  gardens  of  Europe  and  of  our  Eastern  states  this 
is  a  favorite  fir  tree,  often  known  as  the  "blue  fir" 
and  the  "silver  fir"  from  its  pale  bark  and  foliage, 
whose  blue  cast  is  not  always  permanent.  Eastern  nur- 
series obtain  their  best  trees  from  seeds  gathered  in  the 
Rocky  Mountains. 


^8  TREES 


THE  DOUGLAS  SPRUCE 

The  Douglas  spruce  {Pseudotsuga  mucronata,  Sudw.), 
ranks  with  the  giant  arbor- vitaes,  firs,  and  sequoias  in  the 
forests  of  the  Pacific  Coast.  Thousands  of  square  miles 
of  pure  forest  of  this  species  occur  in  Oregon,  Washington, 
and  British  Columbia.  Here  the  trees  stand  even,  like 
wheat  in  a  grain  field,  the  tallest  reach  four  hundred  feet, 
the  redwood  its  only  rival.  Nowhere  but  in  the  redwood 
forests  is  there  such  a  heavy  stand  of  timber  on  this 
continent.  No  forest  tree  except  sequoias  equals  the 
Douglas  spruce  in  massiveness  of  trunk  and  yield  of 
straight-grained  lumber. 

The  genus  pseudotsuga  stands  botanically  in  a  position 
intermediate  between  firs  and  hemlocks.  Our  tree  giant 
is  as  often  called  the  Douglas  &^  as  Douglas  spruce. 
The  lumberman  sells  the  output  of  his  mills  under  the 
trade  name,  "Oregon  pine."  This  is  perhaps  the  best 
known  lumber  in  all  the  Western  country.  It  has  a  great 
reputation  abroad,  where  timbers  of  the  largest  size 
are  used  for  masts,  spars,  piles  for  wharves  and  bridges,  and 
for  whatever  uses  heavy  timbers  are  needed.  The  wood 
is  stronger  in  proportion  to  its  weight  than  that  of  any 
other  large  conifer  in  the  country.  It  is  tough,  dm-able, 
and  elastic.  Its  only  faults  are  its  extreme  hardness  and 
liability  to  warp  when  cut  into  boards.  These  faults  are 
noted  only  by  carpenters  who  use  the  wood  for  interior 
finish  of  houses.  "Red  pine"  it  is  called  in  regions  of  the 
Great  Basin,  where  the  trees  grow  smaller  than  on  the 
Coast,  and  are  put  to  general  lumber  purposes.  It  is 
variable  in  quahty,  but  ajlways  pale  yellow,  striped  with 


THE  nEi\n.OCKS  259 

red,  and  liandsomely  wavy  when  quarter-sawed;  dis- 
tractingly  so  in  the  "slash  grain,"  oftenest  seen  in  the 
interior  finish  of  the  t\'pical  California  bungalow. 

The  living  tree  is  a  superb,  broad-based  pyramid,  bear- 
ing a  load  of  crowded  drooping  branches,  where  it  has  a 
chance  to  assume  its  normal  habit.  A  delicate  lace-like 
drooping  spray  of  yellowish  or  bluish  green  leaves,  flat, 
spreading  at  right  angles  from  tlie  twig,  gives  the  Douglas 
spruce  its  hale,  abundant  vigor.  The  dark  red  staminate 
flowers  glow  in  late  winter  against  the  yellow  foliage  mass 
of  the  new  leaves;  but  even  the  flowers  are  not  so  showy  as 
the  drooping  cones,  two  to  four  inches  long,  their  plain 
scales  adorned  with  bracts,  notched  and  bearing  a  whip 
that  extends  half  an  inch  beyond  the  scales.  Blue-green, 
shading  to  purple,  with  red-lipped  scales  and  bright  green 
bracts,  these  cones  are  truly  the  handsomest  ornaments 
worn  by  any  tree. 

Finally,  this  paragon  of  conifers  surprises  Eastern 
nui'serymen  by  outstripping  other  seedlings  in  vigor  and 
quickness  of  growth.  Rocky  Mountain  seed  does  best. 
The  Oregon  trees  furnish  seed  to  European  nurseries  and 
seedlings  from  Europe  grow  quickly  into  superb  orna- 
mental trees. 


TIIE  HEIVILOCKS 

Unlike  any  other  conifer,  the  hemlock  mounts  its  ever- 
green leaves  on  short  petioles,  jointed  to  projecting,  homy 
brackets  on  the  tv/Ig.  At  any  season  this  character  de- 
termines the  family  name  of  a  group  of  exceptionally 
graceful  pyramidal  conifers.  The  Eastern  hemlocks  have 
their  leaves  arranged  in  a  flat  spray,  silvery  white  und«:- 


260  TREES 

neath,  by  pale  lines  on  the  underside  of  the  flat  blunt- 
pointed  blade  (See  illustration,  page  2^6).  An  abun- 
dance of  pendent  cones  is  borne  annually.  The  wood  of 
hemlocks  is  comparatively  wortliless  but  the  bark  is  rich  in 
tannin,  and  so  the  tree  is  important  in  the  leather  trade. 

The  Hemlock 

Tsuga  Canadensis,  Carr. 

The  hemlock  lifts  its  dark  green,  feathery  spray  above  the 
sturdy  trunk  into  a  splendid  broad  pyramid.  In  all  rocky 
uplands  from  Nova  Scotia  to  Alabama  and  west  to  Min- 
nesota, the  drooping  lower  branches  sweep  the  ground, 
and  the  tree  is  often  half  buried  in  snow.  But  in  spring 
every  twig  is  dancing  and  waving  yellow  plumes  of  new 
fohage,  the  picture  of  cheerfulness  as  the  sunlight  sifts 
through  the  tree- tops.  In  May  the  new  blossoms  sprinkle 
all  the  leafy  twigs — the  staminate,  yellow;  the  pistillate, 
pale  violet.  Looking  up  from  below,  one  sees  a  charming 
iridescent  effect  when  the  blossoms  add  their  color  to  the 
shimmering  silver  which  lines  the  various  platforms  of 
foliage.  The  little  red-brown  cones  cling  to  the  twigs  all 
winter,  slowly  parting  their  scales  to  release  the  winged 
seeds.  Squirrels  climb  the  trees  in  the  fall  and  cut  off 
these  cones  to  store  away  for  winter  use. 

"Peelers"  go  into  the  woods  in  May,  when  the  new 
growth  is  well  started  and  the  bark  will  peel  readily.  They 
fell  and  strip  hemlock  trunks  and  remove  the  bark  in 
sheets,  which  are  piled  to  dry  and  be  measured  like  cord- 
wood,  and  later  shipped  to  the  tanneries.  The  cross- 
grained  coarse  wood  is  left  to  rot  and  feed  forest  fires. 
Locally,  it  is  useful  for  the  timbers  of  houses  and  barns,  be- 


THE  HEIVILOCKS  2G1 

cause  it  is  rigid  and  never  lets  go  its  hold  upon  a  nail  or 
spike. 

The  Western  Hemlock 

T.  heterophylla,  Sarg. 

The  Western  hemlock  is  a  giant  that  dominates  other 
trees  in  the  Western  mountain  forests,  famous  for  their 
giants  of  many  different  names.  It  is  a  noble  pyramidal 
tree  that  reaches  two  hundred  feet  in  height  and  a  maxi- 
mum trunk  diameter  of  ten  feet.  Its  heavy  horizontal 
branches  droop  and  hold  out  feathery  tips  as  light  and 
graceful  in  the  adult  monarch  as  in  the  sapling  of  a  few 
years'  growth.  The  characteristic  hemlock  foliage,  lus- 
trous green  above  and  pale  below,  is  two-ranked  by  the 
twisting  of  the  slender  petioles. 

From  southeastern  Alaska,  eastward  into  Montana  and 
Idaho,  and  southward  to  Cape  Mendocino  in  California, 
this  tree  climbs  from  the  lowlands  to  an  altitude  that  ex- 
ceeds a  mile.  TOierever  there  are  rich  river  valleys  and 
the  air  is  humid,  this  hemlock  is  superb,  the  delight  of 
artists  and  lumbermen.  At  its  highest  range  it  becomes 
stunted,  but  always  produces  its  oval,  pointed  cones  in 
abundance. 

Its  wood,  the  strongest  and  most  durable  in  the  hemlock 
family,  is  chiefly  used  in  buildings,  and  the  bark  for  tan- 
ning. 

The  Mountain  Hemlock 

T.  Martensiana,  Sarg. 

The  mountain  hemlock  of  the  W^est  is  called  by  John 
Muir  "the  loveliest  evergreen  in  America.''  Sargent  en- 
dorses this  judgment  with  emphasis.     It  grows  at  high 


^m  TREES 

altitudes,  fringing  upland  meadows,  watered  by  glaciers, 
with  groves  of  the  most  exquisite  beauty.  The  sweeping, 
downward-drooping  branches,  clothed  with  abundant  pea- 
green  foliage,  silver-lined,  resist  wind  storms  and  snow 
burdens  by  the  wonderful  pliancy  of  their  fibres.  In  early 
autumn  the  trees  are  bent  over  so  as  to  form  arches. 
Young  forests  are  thus  buried  out  of  sight  for  six  months  of 
the  year.  With  the  melting  of  the  snow  they  right  them- 
selves gradually,  and  among  the  new  leaves  appear  the 
flowers,  dark  purple  cones  and  staminate  star-flowers, 
blue  as  forget-me-nots.  Three-angied  leaves,  whorled 
on  the  twig,  and  cones  two  to  three  inches  long,  set  this 
hemlock  apart  from  its  related  species,  but  the  leaf -stalk 
settles  once  for  all  the  question  of  its  family  name. 


THE  SEQUOIAS 

Nowhere  else  in  the  world  are  conifers  found  in  such  ex- 
tensive forests  and  in  such  superlative  vigor  and  stu- 
pendous size  as  in  the  states  that  border  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
California  is  particularly  the  paradise  of  the  conifers.  All 
of  the  species  that  make  the  forests  of  the  Northwest  the 
wonder  of  travelers  and  the  pride  of  the  states  are  found  in 
equally  prodigal  size  and  extent  in  California.  To  these 
forests  are  added  groves  of  sequoias — the  Big  Tree  and  the 
redwood,  the  former  found  nowhere  outside  of  California, 
the  latter  reaching  into  Oregon. 

Once  the  sequoias  had  a  wide  distribution  in  the  Old 
and  the  New  World.  With  magnohas  and  many  other  lux- 
uriant trees  found  in  warm  climates,  five  species  of  sequoia 
extended  over  the  North  Temperate  zone  in  both  hemi- 


1 


Sec  juKjc  JdS 
THE    Fl.AT,     FUOND-MI^i;    SIMr\^     (   F    TIIi:    OIINAMKN'TAL 

Ai;i{()H   \rr.i: 


See  'page  278 
FRUIT    AND    LEAVES    OF    THE    AMERICAN    LARCH 


THE  SEQUOIAS  263 

spheres,  reaching  even  to  the  Arctic  Circle.  The  glacial 
period  transformed  the  climate  of  the  world  and  de- 
stroyed these  luxuriant  northern  forests  under  a  grinding 
continuous  glacier.  The  rocks  of  the  tertiary  and 
cretaceous  periods  preserved  in  fossils  the  story  of  these 
pre-glacial  forests.  Two  of  the  species  of  sequoia  escaped 
destruction  in  tracts  the  ice  sheet  did  not  overwhelm.  For 
ten  thousand  years,  perhaps,  the  sequoia  has  held  its  own 
In  the  California  groves.  Indeed,  both  species  are  able  to 
extend  their  present  range  if  nature  is  unhindered.  The 
three  enemies  that  tin-eaten  sequoia  groves  are  the  axe  of 
the  lumberman,  the  forest  fire  kindled  by  the  waste  about 
sawmills,  and  the  grazing  flocks  that  destroy  seedling  trees. 

The  Big  Tree 

Sequoia  Wellingtoiiia,  Seem. 

The  Big  Tree  is  the  most  gigantic  tree  on  the  face  of  the 
earth,  the  mightiest  living  creature  in  existence.  Among 
the  giant  sugar  pines  and  red  firs  it  lifts  a  wonderfully  reg- 
ular, rounded  dome  so  far  above  the  aspiring  arrow-tips  of 
its  neighbors  as  to  make  the  best  of  them  look  like  mere 
saplings.  The  massive  trunk,  clothed  with  red-browTi  or 
purplish  bark,  is  fluted  by  furrows  often  more  than  a  foot 
in  depth.  The  trunk  is  usually  bare  of  hmbs  for  a  hundi'ed 
or  two  hundred  feet,  clearing  the  forest  cover  completely 
before  throwing  out  its  angular  stout  arms.  These 
branch  at  last  into  rounded  masses  of  leafy  twigs,  whose 
density  and  brilliant  color  express  the  beauty  and  vigor  of 
eternal  youth  in  a  tree  which  counts  its  age  by  thousands 
of  years  already. 

To  see  this  Big  Tree  in  blossom  one  must  visit  the  high 


264  TREES 

Sierras  while  the  snow  is  eight  to  ten  feet  deep  upon  the 
buttressed  base  of  the  huge  trunk.  It  is  worth  a  journey, 
and  that  with  some  hardship  in  it,  to  see  these  trees  with  all 
their  leafy  spray,  gold-lined  with  the  multitude  of  little 
staminate  flowers  that  sift  pollen  gold-dust  over  every- 
thing, and  fill  the  air  with  it.  The  pistillate  flowers, 
minute,  pale  green,  crowd  along  the  ends  of  the  leafy 
sprays,  their  cone  scales  spread  to  receive  the  vitalizing 
dust  brought  by  the  wind. 

When  spring  arrives  and  starts  the  flower  procession 
among  the  lower  tree-tops,  the  spray  of  the  Big  Tree  is 
covered  with  green  cones  that  mature  at  the  end  of  the 
second  season.  They  are  woody,  two  to  three  inches  long, 
and  spread  their  scales  wide  at  a  given  signal,  showering 
the  surrounding  woods  with  the  abundant  harvest  of  their 
minute  winged  seeds.  Each  scale  bears  six  to  eight  of 
them,  each  with  a  circular  wing  that  fits  it  for  a  long 
journey.     The  cones  hang  empty  on  the  trees  for  years. 

The  leaves  of  the  Big  Tree  are  of  the  close,  twig-hugging, 
scaly  type,  never  exceeding  a  haK  inch  in  length  on  the 
most  exuberant-growing  shoots.  For  the  most  part  they 
are  from  one  fourth  to  one  eighth  of  an  inch  in  length, 
sharp  pointed,  ridged,  curved  to  clasp  the  stem,  and  shin- 
gled over  the  leaves  above. 

John  Muir  believes  there  is  no  absolute  limit  to  the  ex- 
istence of  any  tree.  Accident  alone,  he  thinks,  not  the 
wearing  out  of  vital  organs,  accounts  for  their  death.  The 
fungi  that  kill  the  silver  fir  inevitably  before  it  is  three 
hundred  years  old  touch  no  limb  of  the  Big  Tree  with  decay. 
A  sequoia  must  be  blown  down,  undermined,  burned  down, 
or  shattered  by  lightning.  Old  age  and  disease  pass  these 
trees  by.     Their  heads,  rising  far  above  the  spires  of  fir  and 


THE  SEQUOIAS  265 

spruce,  seem  not  to  court  the  lightning  flash  as  the  lower, 
pointed  trunks  do;  and  yet  no  aged  sequoia  can  be  found 
whose  head  has  not  suffered  losses  by  Jove's  thunder- 
bolts. Cheerfully  the  tree  lets  go  a  fraction  of  its  mighty 
top,  and  sets  about  the  repair  of  the  damage,  with  greatly 
accelerated  energy,  as  if  here  was  an  opportunity  to  expend 
the  tree's  pent-up  vitality.  It  is  strange  to  see  horizontal 
branches  of  great  age  and  size  strike  upward  to  form  a  part 
of  a  new,  symmetrical  dome  to  replace  the  head  struck  off 
or  mangled  by  lightning.  With  all  the  signs  of  damage 
lightning  has  done  to  these  tree  giants  of  the  Sierras,  but 
one  instance  of  outright  killing  of  a  tree  is  on  record. 

The  wood  of  the  Big  Tree  is  red  and  soft,  coarse,  light, 
and  weak — unfit  for  must  lumber  uses.  It  ought,  by  all 
ordinary  standards,  to  be  counted  scarcely  worth  the  cut- 
ting; but  the  vast  quantity  yielded  by  a  single  tree  pays  the 
lumberman  huge  profits,  though  he  wastes  thousands  of 
feet  by  blasting  the  mighty  shaft  into  chunks  manageable 
in  the  sawmill.  Shingles,  shakes,  and  fencing  consume 
more  of  the  lumber  than  general  construction — ignoble 
uses  for  this  noblest  of  all  trees. 

The  best  groves  of  Big  Trees  now  under  government  pro- 
tection are  in  the  grand  Sequoia  National  Park.  Near  the 
Yosemite  is  the  famous  Mariposa  Grove  that  contains  the 
** grizzly  giant"  and  other  specimen  trees  of  great  age  and 
size.  More  than  half  of  the  Big  Trees  are  in  the  hands  of 
speculators  and  lumber  companies.  Exploitation  of 
nature's  best  treasure  is  as  old  as  the  human  race.  The 
idea  of  conservation  is  still  in  its  infancy. 

The  ruin  by  the  lumbering  interests  of  a  sequoia  grove 
means  the  drying  up  of  streams  and  the  defeat  of  irrigation 
projects  in  the  valleys  below.     Big  Trees  inhabit  only  areas 


^66  TREES 

on  the  western  slopes  of  the  Sierras.  Wherever  they  grow 
their  roots  have  made  of  the  deep  soil  a  sponge  that  holds 
the  drainage  of  melting  snowbanks  and  doles  it  out  through 
streams  that  flow  thence  to  famishing,  hot,  wind-swept 
plains  and  valleys.  When  the  trees  are  gone,  turbulent, 
short-lived  spring  floods  exhaust  the  water  supply  and  do 
untold  damage  in  the  lowlands. 

Big  Trees  have  not  succeeded  in  cultivation  in  our 
Eastern  states,  but  for  many  years  have  been  favorites  in 
European  gardens  and  parks.  In  the  native  groves  the 
seedlings  do  not  show  the  virility  of  the  redwoods,  though 
to  the  south  the  range  of  the  species  is  being  gradually 
extended.  No  tree  is  more  prodigal  in  seed  production 
and  more  indifferent,  when  mature,  to  the  ills  that  beset 
ordinary  forest  trees;  yet  government  protection  must  be 
strengthened,  private  claims  must  be  bought,  and  scien- 
tific forestry  maintained  in  order  to  prevent  the  extinction 
of  the  species,  with  the  destruction  of  trees  that  are,  as 
they  stand  to-day,  the  greatest  living  monuments  in  the 
world  of  plants. 

The  Redwood 

S,  sempervirens,  Endl. 

The  redwood  comes  down  to  the  sea  on  the  western 
slopes  of  the  Coast  Range,  from  southern  Oregon  to 
Monterey  County  in  California,  tempting  the  lumberman 
by  the  wonderful  wealth  and  accessibility  of  these  groves 
of  giant  trees.  The  wood  is  soft,  satiny,  red,  like  the 
thick,  fibrous,  furrowed  bark  that  clothes  the  tall,  fluted 
trunks. 

Redwoods  are  taller  than  Big  Trees,  have  slenderer 
trunks  and  branches  and  a  more  light  and  graceful  leaf- 


THE  SEQUOIAS  267 

spray.  The  head  is  pyramidal  in  young  trees,  later  be- 
coming irregular  and  narrow,  and  exceedingly  small  in 
forests  by  the  crowding  of  the  trees  and  the  death  of  lower 
branches.  The  leaves  on  the  terminal  shoots  spread  into 
a  flat  spray,  two-ranked,  like  those  of  a  balsam  fir.  Each 
blade  is  flat,  tapering  to  both  ends,  and  from  one  fourth 
to  one  half  an  inch  in  length.  Awl-shaped  and  much 
shorter  leaves  are  scattered  on  year-old  twigs,  back  of  the 
new  shoots,  resembling  the  foliage  of  the  Big  Tree. 

The  cones  are  small  and  almost  globular,  maturing  in 
a  single  season,  scarcely  an  inch  long,  with  three  to  five 
winged  seeds  under  each  scale.  Seedling  redwoods  come 
quickly  from  this  yearly  sowing,  and  thrive  under  the 
forest  cover,  unless  fire  or  the  trampling  feet  of  grazing 
flocks  destroy  tliem.  After  the  lumberman,  the  virile 
redwood  sends  up  shoots  around  the  bleeding  stumps,  thus 
reinforcing  the  seedling  tree  and  promising  the  renewal  of 
the  forest  groves  in  the  centuries  to  come. 

Redwood  lumber  is  the  most  important  building  ma- 
terial on  the  Pacific  Coast.  The  hardest  and  choicest 
wood  comes  in  limited  quantities  from  the  stumps  which 
furnish  curly  and  birdseye  wood,  used  by  the  makers 
of  bric-a-brac  and  high-priced  cabinet  work.  Shingles, 
siding,  and  interior  finish  of  houses  consume  quantities 
of  the  yearly  output  of  the  mills.  Demand  for  fence 
posts,  railway  ties  and  cooperage  increases.  Quantities 
of  lumber  are  shipped  east  to  take  the  place  of  white  pine 
no  longer  obtainable. 

In  cultivation  the  redwood  is  a  graceful,  quick-growing, 
beautiful  evergreen,  successful  in  the  Southeastern  states, 
and  often  met  in  European  parks  and  gardens.  Weeping 
forms  are  very  popular  abroad. 


268  TREES 

Government  and  state  protection  has  made  sure  the 
safeguarding  for  coming  generations  of  some  groves  of 
redwoods,  containing  trees  whose  size  and  age  rival  those 
of  the  most  ancient  Big  Trees.  But  the  fact  that  the 
redwood,  restricted  on  the  map  to  such  a  Hmited  territory, 
is  the  most  important  timber  tree  on  the  Coast,  is  a  blot 
upon  our  vaunted  Democracy,  which  has  allowed  the 
cunning  of  a  few  small  minds  to  defeat  the  best  interests 
of  the  whole  people  and  rob  them  of  forest  treasure  which 
might  yield  its  benefits  continuously,  if  properly  managed. 
Government  purchase  of  all  sequoia-bearing  land,  followed 
by  rational  methods  of  harvesting  the  mature  lumber  and 
conserving  the  young  growth,  is  the  ideal  solution  of  the 
problem.  Such  a  plan  would  assure  the  saving  of  the 
monumental  giants. 


THE  ARBOR-VITAES 

Minute,  scale-like  leaves,  four-ranked,  closely  over- 
lapping, so  as  to  conceal  the  wiry  twig,  mark  the  genus 
thuya,  which  is  represented  in  America  by  two  species  of 
slender,  pyramidal  evergreen  trees,  whose  intricately 
branched  limbs  terminate  in  a  flat,  open  spray  {see  illus- 
tration,  page  262).  "Tree  of  Life"  is  the  English  transla- 
tion, but  the  Latin  name  everywhere  is  heard. 

Eastern  Arbor-vitae 

Thuya  occidentalis,  Linn. 

The  Eastern  arbor-vitae,  called  also  the  white  cedar, 
is  found  in  impenetrable  pure  forest  growth,  from  Nova 


THE  ARBOR- VITAES  269 

Scotia  and  New  Brunswick  northwestward  to  tlie  mouth 
oi  the  Saskatchewan  River,  always  in  swampy  regions, 
or  along  the  rocky  banks  of  streams.  In  the  East  it 
follows  the  mountains  to  Tennessee,  and  from  Lake 
Winnipeg  it  extends  south  to  middle  Minnesota  and 
northern  Illinois.  In  cultivation  it  is  oftenest  seen  as 
an  individual  lawn  and  park  tree,  or  in  hedges  on  boundary 
lines.  It  submits  comfortably  to  severe  pruning,  is  easily 
transplanted,  and  comes  readily  from  seed.  Plantations 
grow  rapidly  into  fence  posts  and  telegraph  poles.  The 
wood  is  durable  in  wet  ground,  but  very  soft,  coarse,  and 
brittle. 

The  Red  Cedar 

T.  plicata,  D.  Don. 

The  red  cedar  or  canoe  cedar  is  the  giant  arbor-vitae 
of  the  coast  region  from  British  Columbia  to  northern 
California  and  east  over  the  mountain  ranges  into  Idaho 
and  northern  Montana.  Its  buttressed  trunk  is  a  fluted 
column  one  hundred  and  fifty  to  two  hundred  feet  high 
in  western  Washington  and  Oregon,  along  the  banks  of 
mountain  streams  and  in  the  rich  bottom  land  farther 
seaward.  The  leaves  in  a  flat  spray  at  once  distinguish 
this  tree  from  any  other  conifer,  for  they  are  pointed,  scale- 
like, closely  overlapping  each  other  in  alternate  pairs. 

The  clustered  cones,  with  their  six  or  eight  seed- 
bearing  scales,  seem  absurdl}'  small  fruits  on  so  huge  a  tree. 
None  exceeds  one  half  an  inch  in  height,  but  their  number 
makes  up  for  size  deficiency  and  the  seed  crop  is  tre- 
mendous. 

The  Alaskan  Indian  chooses  the  tall  bole  of  a  red  cedar 
for  his  totem  pole,  and  from  the  massive  butt  hollows 


270  TREES 

out  the  war  canoe  and  "dug-out"  which  solve  his  prob- 
lems of  transportation  in  summer.  Durability  is  the 
chief  merit  of  this  soft,  brittle  wood,  which  is  easily  worked 
with  the  Indian's  crude  tools.  The  bark  of  the  tree  fur- 
nishes the  walls  of  the  Indian  huts  and  its  inner  fibre 
is  the  raw  material  of  his  cordage — the  harness  for  his 
dog  team,  his  nets  and  lines  for  fishing;  and  it  is  the  basis 
of  the  squaw's  basket-weaving  industry. 

This  is  the  best  arbor-vitae  for  ornamental  planting. 
Its  success  in  Europe  is  very  strildng,  and  from  European 
nurseries  it  has  been  successfully  re-introduced  into  the 
United  States,  where  it  is  hardy  and  vigorous.  But  it 
fails  when  taken  directly  into  the  North  Atlantic  states. 
It  must  come  in  via  Europe,  as  nearly  all  West  Coast 
trees  have  to  do  in  order  to  succeed. 

THE  INCENSE  CEDAR 

One  tree,  so  magnificent  in  proportions  that  it  ranks 
among  the  giants  in  our  Western  forests,  stands  as  the 
sole  American  representative  of  its  genus.  Its  nearest 
relatives  are  the  arbor- vitaes,  sequoias,  and  the  bald  cypress 
of  the  South. 

The  incense  cedar  (Librocedrus  DecurrenSy  Torr.)  has 
its  name  from  its  resinous,  aromatic  sap.  The  tree,  when 
it  grows  apart  from  others,  forms  a  perfect  tapering  pyra- 
mid, with  flat,  plume-like  sprays  that  sweep  downward 
and  outward  with  wonderful  lightness  and  grace.  The 
leaves  are  scale-like,  closely  appressed  to  the  wiry  twigs, 
in  four  ranks,  bright  green,  tinged  with  gold  in  late  winter, 
by  the  abundance  of  the  yellow  staminate  flowers.  The 
cones  are  small,  narrowly  pointed,  made  of  few  paired 


THE  CYPRESSES  271 

scales,  each  bearing  two  seeds.  The  bark  is  cinnamon-red 
in  color.  The  trees  occur  scattered  among  other  species  in 
open  forests  from  three  thousand  to  six  thousand  feet 
above  the  sea,  reaching  a  height  of  two  hundred  feet  and  a 
trunk  diameter  of  twelve  feet  on  the  Sierra  Nevada  glacial 
moraines. 

The  lumber  resembles  that  of  arbor- vitae,  and  is  used  for 
the  same  purposes.  In  cultivation  the  tree  is  hardy  and 
thrives  in  parks  in  the  neighborhood  of  New  York.  In 
Europe  it  has  long  been  a  favorite. 

THE  CYPRESSES 

Three  genera  of  pyramidal  conifers,  with  light,  graceful 
leaf -spray,  and  small  woody  cones,  held  erect,  compose  the 
group  known  as  cypresses.  All  have  found  places  in 
horticulture,  for  not  one  of  them  but  has  value  for  orna- 
mental planting.  Some  species  have  considerable  lumber 
value. 

The  Monterey  Cypress 

Cwpressus  rnacrocarpa.  Cord. 

The  Monterey  cypress  is  now  restricted  to  certain  ocean- 
facing  bluffs  about  Monterey  Bay  in  California.  These 
trees  are  derelicts  of  their  species.  Wind-beaten  into 
grotesqueness  of  form,  unmatched  in  any  other  tree 
near  the  sea-level,  their  matted  and  gnarled  branches 
make  a  flat  and  very  irregular  top  above  a  short,  thick, 
often  bent  and  leaning  trunk.  Clusters  of  globular  cones 
stud  the  twigs  behind  the  leafy  spraj^  composed  of  thread- 
like wiry  twigs,  entirely  covered  with  scaly,  four-ranked 
leaves. 


272  TREES 

In  cultivation  this  cypress  grows  into  a  luxuriant,  pyr- 
amidal tree,  often  broadening  and  losing  its  symmetry, 
but  redeeming  it  by  the  grace  of  its  plume-like,  outstretched 
branches.  One  by  one  the  native  cypresses  on  the  crum- 
bling bluffs  will  go  down  into  Monterey  Bay,  for  the 
imdermining  process  is  eating  out  their  foundations. 
Wind  and  wave  are  slowly  but  surely  sealing  their  doom. 
But  the  species  is  saved  to  a  much  wider  territory. 

The  European  Cypress 
C.  sempervirens,  Linn. 

A  tall,  narrow  pyramid  of  sombre  green,  the  European 
cypress  is  found  in  cemeteries  in  south  Europe  and  every- 
where, planted  for  ornament.  This  is  the  classic  cypress, 
a  conventional  feature  of  Italian  gardens,  the  evergreen 
most  frequently  mentioned  in  classical  literature.  Slow- 
growing  and  noted  for  its  longevity,  it  was  the  symbol  of 
immortahty.  It  is  hardy  in  the  South- Atlantic  and 
Pacific-Coast  states,  and  is  a  favorite  evergreen  for  hedges 
in  the  Southwest. 

Three  other  members  of  the  genus  occur  on  mountain 
foothills — one  in  Arizona,  two  in  California — all  easily 
recognized  by  their  scale-like  leaves  and  button-like 
woody  cones,  which  require  two  years  to  mature. 

The  White  Cedar 

Chamaecyparis  Thyoides,  Britt. 

The  genus  chamaecyparis  includes  three  American 
species,  of  tall,  narrow  pyramidal  habit  and  flat  leaf-spray 
like  that  of  the  arbor-vitae.  Annual  erect  globular  cones 
of  few,  woody  scales,  produce  one  to  five  seeds  under  each. 


THE  CYPRESSES  273 

This  white  cedar  is  the  swamp-loving  variety  of  the 
Atlantic  seaboard — its  range  stretches  from  Maine  to  Mis- 
sissippi. The  durability  of  its  white  wood  gives  it  consider- 
able importance  as  a  lumber  tree.  It  is  particularly  de- 
pendable when  placed  in  contact  with  water  and  exposed  to 
weather.  Cedar  shingles,  fence  posts,  railroad  ties,  buckets, 
and  other  cooperage  consume  quantities  each  year.  The 
trees  are  important  ornamental  evergreens,  planted  for 
their  graceful  spray  and  their  dull  blue-green  leaves. 
Their  maximum  height  is  eighty  feet. 

The  Lawson  Cypress 
C.   Lawsoniana,  A.   Murr. 

The  Lawson  cypress  lifts  its  splendid  spire  to  a  height  of 
two  hundred  feet,  on  the  coast  mountains  of  Oregon  and 
California,  forming  a  nearly  continuous  forest  belt  twenty 
miles  long,  between  Point  Gregory  and  the  mouth  of  the 
Coquille  River.  Spire-like,  with  short,  horizontal  branches, 
this  species  bears  a  leaf-spray  of  feathery  lightness, 
bright  green,  from  the  multitude  of  minute  paired  leaf- 
scales,  and  adorned  with  the  clustered  pea-sized  cones, 
which  are  blue-green  and  very  pale  until  they  ripen. 

The  wood  of  this  giant  cypress  is  used  in  house-finishing 
and  in  boat-building;  for  flooring,  fencing,  and  for  railroad 
ties. 

The  Bald  Cypress 

\  Taxodiuvi  distichum,  Rich. 

The  bald  cypress  is  the  one  member  of  the  cypress  group 
that  sheds  its  foliage  each  autumn,  following  the  example 
of  the  tamarack.     In  the  Far  South,  river  swamps  are  often 


274  TREES 

covered  with  a  growth  of  these  cypresses  whose  trunks  are 
strangely  swollen  at  the  base,  and  often  hollow.  The  flar- 
ing buttresses  are  prolonged  into  the  main  roots,  which 
form  humps  that  rise  out  of  the  water  at  some  distance 
from  the  tree.  These  "cypress  knees"  are  not  yet  ex- 
plained, though  authorities  suspect  that  they  have  some- 
thing to  do  with  the  aeration  of  the  root  system. 

Inundated  nine  or  ten  months  of  the  year,  these  cy- 
press swamps  are  often  dry  the  remaining  time,  and  it  is  a 
surprise  to  Southerners  to  find  these  trees  comfortable  and 
beautiful  in  Northern  parks.  Cleveland  and  New  York 
parks  have  splendid  examples. 

The  leaves  of  the  bald  cypress  are  of  two  types.  They 
are  scale-like  only  on  stems  that  bear  the  globular  cones. 
On  other  shoots  they  form  a  flat  spray,  each  leaf  one  haK  to 
three  fourths  of  an  inch  long,  pea-green  in  the  Southern 
swamps,  bright  yellow-green  on  both  sides  in  dry  ground, 
turning  orange-brown  before  they  fall.  The  twigs  that 
bear  these  two-ranked  leaves  are  also  deciduous,  a  unique 
distinction  of  this  genus. 

Cypress  wood  is  soft,  light  brown,  durable,  and  easily 
worked.  Quantities  of  it  are  shipped  north  and  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  doors  and  interior  finishing  of  houses,  for 
fencing,  railroad  ties,  cooperage,  and  shingles. 


THE  JUNIPERS 

The  sign  by  which  the  junipers  are  most  easily  distin- 
guished from  other  evergreens,  is  the  juicy  berries  instead  of 
cones.  In  some  species  these  are  red,  but  they  are  mostly 
blue  or  blue-black.     Before  they  mature  it  is  easy  to  see 


THE  JUNIPERS  275 

the  stages  by  which  the  cone-scales  thicken  and  coalesce, 
instead  of  hardening  and  remaining  separate,  as  in  the 
typical  fruit  of  conifers. 

Juniper  leaves  are  of  two  types:  scale-like  in  opposite 
pairs,  pressed  close  to  the  tw^g,  as  in  the  cypresses;  and 
stiff,  spiny,  usually  channelled  leaves,  which  stand  out  free 
from  the  twig  in  whorls  of  threes. 

The  wood  is  red,  fragrant,  durable,  and  light. 

The  Dwarf  Juniper 

Juniperus  communis,   Linn. 

The  dwarf  juniper  departs  from  the  pyramidal  pattern 
and  forms  a  loose,  open  head  above  a  short,  stout  trunk. 
The  slender  branchlets  are  clothed  with  boat-shaped 
leaves  which  spread  nearly  at  right  angles  from  the  twigs  in 
whorls  of  three.  Each  one  is  pointed  and  hollowed,  dark 
green  outside,  snowy  white  inside,  which  is  really  the  upper 
side  of  the  leaf.  It  requires  three  years  to  mature  the 
bright  blue  berries,  and  they  hang  on  the  tree  two  or  three 
years  longer.  Each  fruit  contains  two  or  three  seeds,  and 
these  require  three  years  to  germinate. 

It  is  plain  to  see  that  time  is  no  object  to  this  slow-grow- 
ing dwarf  juniper,  found  in  both  the  Eastern  and  Western 
Hemispheres,  covering  vast  stretches  of  waste  land.  From 
Greenland  to  Alaska  it  is  found  and  south  along  the  high- 
lands into  Pennsylvania,  New  Mexico,  and  California.  Its 
hardiness  gives  it  importance  as  a  cover  for  waste  land  on 
seashores  and  for  hedges  and  windbreaks  in  any  exposed 
situation.  It  is  a  tree  reaching  thirty  feet  in  height  on  the 
limestone  hills  of  southern  Illinois.  In  other  situations  it 
is  usually  a  sprawling  shrubby  thing,  the  cringing  parent 


276  TREES 

of  a  race  of  dwarf  junipers,  known  in  many  and  various 
horticultural  forms. 

The  Western  Juniper 

J.  occidentalis.  Hook. 

The  giant  of  its  race  is  the  Western  juniper,  one  of  the 
patriarchial  trees  of  America,  ranking  in  age  with  the 
sequoias.  Never  a  tall  tree,  it  yet  attains  a  trunk  diameter 
of  ten  feet,  and  an  age  that  surely  exceeds  two  thousand 
years.  At  elevations  of  seven  to  ten  thousand  feet  this 
valiant  red  cedar  is  found  clinging  to  the  granite  domes 
and  bare  glacial  pavements  where  soil  and  moisture  seem 
absolutely  non-existent.  Sunshine  and  thin  air  are 
abundant,  however,  and  elbow  room.  Upon  these  com- 
modities the  tree  subsists,  crouching,  stubbornly  clinging, 
while  a  single  root  offers  foothold,  its  gnarled  branches 
picturesque  and  beautiful  in  their  tufts  of  gray-green 
leaves.  Avalanches  have  beheaded  the  oldest  of  these 
giants,  but  their  denuded  trunks  throw  out  wisps  of 
new  foliage  with  each  returning  spring.  When  they  suc- 
cumb, their  trunks  last  almost  as  long  as  the  granite 
boulders  among  which  they  are  cast  by  the  wind  or  the 
ice-burden  that  tore  them  loose. 

The  stringy  bark  is  woven  into  cloth  and  matting  by 
the  Indians,  and  the  fine-grained,  hard,  red  wood  finds  no 
better  use  than  for  the  mountaineer's  fencing  and  fuel. 

The  Eastern  Red  Cedar 

J.  Virginiana,  Linn. 

The  Eastern  red  cedar  is  a  handsome,  narrow  pyramid 
in  its  youth,    often   becoming   broad   and   irregular,   or 


THE  LARCHES  277 

round-topped  above  a  buttressed,  twisted  trunk,  as  it 
grows  old.  The  scale-like  leaves  are  four-ranked,  blue- 
green  when  young,  spreading,  and  sometimes  three 
fourths  of  an  inch  long,  on  vigorous  new  shoots.  The 
dark  blue  berries  are  covered  with  a  pale  bloom  and  have 
a  resinous,  sweet  flesh.  This  juniper  is  familiar  in  aban- 
doned farms  and  ragged  fence-rows,  becoming  rusty 
brown  in  foliage  to  match  the  stringy  red  bark  in  winter 
time.  The  durable  red  wood  is  used  for  posts  and  railroad 
ties,  for  cedar  chests  and  pencils.  The  tree  is  profitably 
planted  by  railroad  companies,  as  cedar  ties  are  unsur- 
passed. In  cultivation  the  tree  forms  an  interesting, 
symmetrical  specimen,  adapted  to  formal  gardens.  (See 
illustration t  page  230.) 

The  Red  Juniper 

J.  Barbadensis,  Linn. 

The  red  juniper,  much  more  luxuriant  than  its  close 
relative  of  the  North,  is  the  handsomest  juniper  in  culti- 
vation. Its  pyramid  is  robbed  of  a  rigid  formal  expression 
by  the  drooping  of  its  fern-like  leaf -spray.  The  berries  are 
silvery  white  and  abundant.  The  wood  is  used  princi- 
pally for  pencils.     This  species  grows  in  the  Gulf  states. 


THE  LARCHES,  OR  TAMARACKS 

The  notable  characteristic  of  the  small  genus,  larix,  is 
that  the  narrow  leaves  are  shed  in  the  autunm.  Here  is 
a  tall  pyramidal  conifer  which  is  not  evergreen.  It 
bears  an  annual  crop  of  small  woody  cones,  held  erect 


278  TREES 

on  the  branches,  and  the  leaves  are  borne  in  crowded 
clusters  on  short  lateral  spurs,  except  upon  the  terminal 
shoots,  where  the  leaves  are  scattered  remotely  but  follow 
the  spiral  plan.  Larch  wood  is  hard,  heavy,  resinous,  and 
almost  indestructible.  The  tall  shafts  are  ideal  for  tele- 
graph poles  and  posts. 


The  Tamarack 

Larix  Americana,  Michx. 

The  tamarack  or  American  larch  {see  illustration,  page 
263)  goes  farther  north  than  any  other  tree,  except  dwarf 
willows  and  birches.  Above  these  stunted,  broad-leaved 
trees  pure  forests  of  tamarack  rise,  covering  Northern 
swamps  from  Newfoundland  and  Labrador  to  Hudson 
Bay  and  west  across  the  Rocky  Mountains,  the  trees 
dwindling  in  size  as  they  approach  the  arctic  tundras,  the 
limit  of  tree  growth.  The  wood  of  these  bravest  of  all 
conifers  is  a  God-send  over  vast  territories  where  other 
supply  of  timber  is  wanting.  The  tough  roots  of  the 
larch  tree  supply  threads  with  which  the  Indian  sews  his 
birch  canoe. 

In  cultivation  the  American  species  is  too  sparse  of 
limb  and  foliage  to  compete  with  the  more  luxuriant 
European  larch,  yet  it  is  often  planted.  Its  fresh  spring 
foliage  is  lightened  by  the  pale  yellow  of  the  globular 
staminate  flowers  and  warmed  by  the  rosy  tips  of  the 
cone  flowers.  In  early  autumn  the  plain,  thin-scaled 
cones,  erect  and  bright  chestnut-brown,  shed  their  small 
seeds  while  the  yellow  leaves  are  dropping,  and  the  bare 
limbs  carry  the  empty  cones  until  the  following  year. 


THE  LARCHES  279 

The  Western  Larch 

L.  occidentalism  Nutt. 

The  Western  larch  is  the  finest  tree  in  its  genus,  reaching 
six  feet  in  trunk  diameter  and  two  hundred  feet  in  height, 
in  the  Cascade  forests  from  British  Columbia  to  southern 
Oregon  and  across  the  ranges  to  western  Montana.  This 
tree  has  the  unusual  distinction  of  exceeding  all  conifers 
in  the  value  of  its  wood,  which  is  heavy,  hard,  strong, 
dense,  durable,  of  a  fine  red  that  takes  a  brilliant  polish. 
It  is  used  for  furniture  and  for  the  interior  finish  of  houses. 
Quantities  of  it  supply  the  demand  for  posts  and  railroad 
ties,  in  which  use  it  lasts  indefinitely,  compared  with  other 
timber. 


PART  IX 
THE  PALMS 

Palms  are  tropical  plants  related  to  lilies  on  one  hand 
and  grasses  on  the  other.  One  hundred  genera  and  about 
one  thousand  species  compose  a  family  in  which  tree  forms 
rarely  occur.  A  few  genera  grow  wild  in  the  warmest 
sections  of  this  country,  and  exotics  are  familiar  in  culti- 
vation, wherever  they  are  hardy.  The  leaves  are  parallel- 
veined,  fan-shaped,  or  feather-like,  on  long  stalks  that 
sheath  the  trunk,  splitting  with  its  growth.  The  flowers 
are  lily-like,  on  the  plan  of  three,  and  the  fruits  are  clus- 
tered berries,  or  drupes. 

Sago,  tapioca,  cocoanuts,  and  dates  are  foods  de- 
rived from  members  of  this  wonderful  family.  The 
fibres  of  the  leaves  supply  thread  for  weaving  cloth  and 
cordage  to  the  natives  of  the  tropics,  where  houses  are 
built  and  furnished  throughout  from  the  native  palms. 

The  royal  palm,  crowned  with  a  rosette  of  feather-like 
leaves,  each  ten  to  twelve  feet  long,  above  the  smooth, 
tall  stems,  is  a  favorite  avenue  tree  in  tropical  cities. 
In  Florida  it  grows  wild  in  the  extreme  southwest,  but  is 
planted  on  the  streets  of  Miami  and  Palm  Beach.  Its 
maximum  height  is  one  hundred  feet. 

In  California  the  favorite  avenue  palm  of  this  feather- 
leaved  type  is  the  Canary  Island  palm,  whose  stout  trunk, 
covered  with  interlacing  leaf-bases,   wears  a  crown  of 

280 


THE  PALMS  281 

plumes  that  reach  fifteen  feet  in  length  and  touch  the 
ground  with  their  drooping  tips.  Huge  clusters  of  bright 
yellow,  dry,  olive-shaped  berries  ripen  in  midsummer. 

The  date  palm  of  commerce,  once  confined  to  the  tropical 
deserts  of  Asia  Minor  and  North  Africa,  has  been  suc- 
cessfully established  by  the  Government  in  hot,  dry  locali- 
ties of  the  Southwest.  Fruit  equal  to  any  grown  in 
plantations  of  the  Old  World  is  marketed  now  from  the 
Imperial  and  Coachella  valleys  in  California,  and  from 
orchards  near  Phoenix,  Arizona.  Dry  air  and  a  summer 
temperature  far  above  the  hundred  degree  mark  is  neces- 
sary to  insure  the  proper  sugar  content  and  flavor  in 
these  fruits,  which  are  borne  in  huge  clusters  and  ripen 
slowly,  one  by  one. 

Fan-shaped  leaves  plaited  on  the  ends  of  long  stalks 
that  are  usually  spiny-edged  are  borne  by  the  stocky 
Florida  palmettos  and  the  tall  desert  palm  of  California, 
planted  widely  in  cities  of  the  Southwest  and  in  Europe. 
Several  genera  of  this  fan-leaved  type  are  represented  in 
palm  gardens,  and  in  the  general  horticulture  of  warm 
regions  of  this  country. 


THE   END 


GENERAL  INDEX 


PAGE 

PAGE 

Abies  halsamea      .      .      . 

.      .     253 

American  larch 278 

Abies  concolor 

.      .     257 

American  linden  . 

70 

Abies  Fraseri  . 

.      .      253 

Annual  rings   . 

12 

Abies  grandis  . 

.      .     256 

Anona  cherimolia 

171 

Abies  magnifica 

.      .      254 

Anona  glabra  . 

.     170 

Abies  nobilis    . 

.      .     256 

Apples,  The     .      . 

'.   147-140 

Acacia  dealbata 

.      .      187 

Arbor-vitaes,  The 

.   268-270 

Acacia  Melanoxylon  . 

.      .     186 

Arboreta 

xiv 

Acacia,  Palo  verde     .      . 

.      190 

Arbutus  Menziesii 

.     121 

Acacias,  The   .... 

.   184-187 

Arnold  arboretum 

.      xiv 

Acer  circinatum     . 

.      .      197 

Ash,  Black       .      . 

.     204 

Acer  glabrum  .... 

.      199 

Ash,  Blue  .      .      . 

.     206 

Acer  macrophyllum     . 

.     197 

Ash,  European 

.     208 

Acer  nigrum    .... 

.     195 

Ash,  Green 

206 

Acer  Negundo 

.     199 

Ash,  Oregon 

.     207 

Acer  Pennsylvanicum 

.     198 

Ash,  Red   .      .      . 

.     205 

Acer  pseudo-platanus 

.     200 

Ash,  White      .      . 

202 

Acer  rubmm 

.      195 

Ashes,  Mountain 

116-118 

Acer  saccharinum 

.     196 

Ashes,  The      .      . 

201-209 

Acer  saccharum     .      .      .      . 

.      194 

Asimina  triloba     . 

.      .      168 

Acer  spicatum 

.     198 

Aspen  .... 

78 

Aesculus  Calif omica  . 

.       68 

Assam  rubber  tree 

166 

Aesculus  glabra     .      .      .      . 

.       67 

Autumn  leaves     . 

19 

Aesculus  Hippocastanum 

.        65 

Avocado     . 

129 

Aesculus  octandra 

.        67 

"Ague  tree" 

.      131 

Bald  cypress   . 

273 

Alder,  Black    .      . 

91 

Balm  of  Gilead     . 

79 

Alder,  Oregon 

.       93 

Balsam  fir 

253 

Alder,  Red       .      . 

93 

Balsam  poplar 

79 

Alder,  Seaside 

92 

"Banana  tree.  Wild" 

169 

Alders,  The     .      . 

.91-93 

Banyan  tree 

166 

Alligator  pear 

.      129 

Bark     .... 

XV.  23 

Almond 

.     152 

Basket  oak 

55 

Alnu^  glutinosa 

91 

Basswood,  Downy 

72 

Alnus  mariiima     . 

92 

Basswood.  White 

71 

Alnus  Orcgona 

. 

.       93 

Basswoods,  The    . 

63-74 

Amclanchier  alnijolia 

.      160 

Bay,  Red  ...      . 

129 

Amelanchier  Canadensis 

159 

Bay,  Rose 

119 

American  beech    .      .      .      . 

42 

Bay,  Swamp   .      . 

105 

American  elm        .      .      .      . 

.      210 

Bee  tree      .... 

71 

American  holly 

.      145 

Beech,  American 

42 

American  hornbea 

m  , 

85 

"Beech,  Blue"     .      . 

85 

283 


284 


GENERAL  INDEX 


PAGE 

"Beech,  Water" 85 

"Beetle- wood" 86 

Betula  lenta 90 

Betula  lutea 89 

Betula  nigra 90 

Betula  papyrifera        ....  88 

Betula  yopulifolia       ....  89 

"Big-cone"  pine 240 

Big  sheUbark 38 

Big  Tree 263 

Birch,  Canoe 88 

Birch,  Cherry 90 

Birch,  Paper 88 

Birch,  Red 90 

Birch,  River 90 

Birch,  White 89 

Birch,  Yellow 89 

Birches,  The 87-91 

Bird  cherry 153 

"  Bird's-eye "  maplewood      .      .  15 

Black  acacia 186 

Black  alder 91 

Black  ash 204 

Black  cherry.  Wild    ....  153 

Black  Cottonwood      ....  80 

Black  dwarf  sumach        .      .      .  140 

Black  gum ^^ 

Black  haw 115-158 

Black  locust          178 

Black  maple 195 

Black  mulberry 165 

Black  oak 58 

Black  oak  group 58-65 

Black  poplar 77 

Black  spruce 248 

Black  walnut 31 

Blackwood-tree 186 

Blue  ash .  206 

"Blue  beech" 85 

Blue  fir 257 

Blue  spruce 250 

Box  elder 199 

Buckeye,  California  ....  68 

Buckeye,  Ohio 67 

Buckeye,  Sweet          ....  67 

Buds 3,  23 

Bur  oak 51 

Burning  bush 136 

Butternut 30 

Buttonwoods,  The     ....  93-95 


California  walnut 

20 

California  white  oak 

57 

Cambium 

9,21 

Campbell's  magnolia 

103 

Camperdown  elm 

216 

Canada  plum 

151 

Canary  island  palm  . 

280 

Canoe  birch    .... 

88 

Canoe  cedar 

269 

Carica  papaya 

169 

Carolina  poplar    .      .      . 

78 

Carpinus  Carolinianum  . 

85 

Castanea  dentata  . 

44 

Castanea  pumila  . 

44-46 

Cedar,  Canoe        .      . 

269 

Cedar,  Eastern  red    . 

276 

Cedar,  Incense 

270 

Cedar,  Red 

269 

Cedar,  White        .      . 

272 

Celtis  Australis     . 

162 

Celtis  occidentalis 

161 

Cercidium  Torreyanum 

190 

Cercis  Canadensis 

182 

Ckamaecyparis  Lawsoniana 

.     273 

Chamaecyparis  Thyoides 

.     272 

Chemistry  of  trees     . 

5-8 

Cherimoya 

171 

Cherries,  The        .      . 

.   1. 

52-155 

Cherry  birch   . 

90 

Chestnut  oak        .      . 

.       53 

Chestnuts,  The     .      . 

.44-47 

Chinquapin     . 

.44-46 

Chiotianthus  Virginica 

.      126 

Chlorophyll,  Breaking  c 

low 

n  o 

f 

the          .... 

.       18 

Choke  cherry        .      . 

.     154 

Cladrastis  lutea      . 

.     183 

Clammy  locust     . 

.     179 

Cockspur  thorn     . 

.     156 

Coflfee  tree,  Kentucky 

.     181 

Colorado  blue  spruce 

.     250 

Common  lime 

72 

Cone-bearing  evergreens 

.  217-279 

Conifers     .... 

.   217-279 

Coral-bean 

.      .     192 

"Cork  elm" 

.     215 

Cornel        .... 

.     113 

Cornus  florida 

.     Ill 

Cornus  mas 

.     113 

Cornus  Nuttallii    . 

.     113 

Cotinus      .... 

. 

.     142 

GENERAL  INDEX 


285 


PAGE 

PAGE 

Cotton  gum 

.       97 

Elm,  Mountain     . 

.      .     215 

Cottonwood 

.       77 

Klin,  Red  .      .      .      . 

.      .     213 

Cottonwood,  Black    .      .      . 

.        80 

Elm,  Rock       .      .      . 

214 

Cottonwood,  Liince-leaved  . 

80 

Elm,  Scotch    . 

216 

Cottonwood,  Mexican     . 

80 

Elm,  Slippery 

.      .      213 

Cottonwood,  Narrow-leaved 

.       80 

Elm,  Small-lcaved 

.      .      215 

Cottonwood,  Swamp 

81 

Elm,  White     .      .      . 

.      .      210 

Crab,  IVairie 

.      U8 

Elm,  Wingefl  . 

.      .      215 

Crab,  Wild 

.      148 

Elm,  Wych      .      .      .      ' 

216 

Crataegus  coccinea 

.      158 

Elms,  The       .      .      . 

.   210-216 

Crataegus  Crus-galli   . 

.      156 

"Encina" 

.      .        64 

Crataegus  Douglasii    . 

.     158 

Engelmann  spruce     . 

.      .     250 

Crataegus  mollis    .... 

.     157 

English  elm     .      .      .      . 

.      .      215 

Crataegus  oxyacantha 

.     155 

English  hawthorn       .      . 

.      .      155 

Crataegus  pruinosa     . 

.     157 

English  walnut     . 

.      .       33 

Cuban  pine 

.     236 

Euonymus  atropurpureus 

.      .      136 

Cucumber  tree      .... 

.     107 

European  ash 

.      .      208 

Cucumber  tree,  Large-leaved 

.      106 

European  cypress 

.      .     272 

Cupressvs  macrocarpa 

.     271 

European  dog^vood 

.      .     113 

Cupressus  sempervirens    . 

.     272 

European  ho  ly     .      .      . 

.      .      144 

"  Curly  maplewood  " 

.        15 

European  mountain  ash 

.      .      117 

Custard-apple       .      .      .      .   1( 

38, 170 

European  nettle  tree 

.      .      162 

Cypresses,  The     ....  2' 

ri-274 

Evergreens,  Cone-bearint 

;     .   217-279 

Evergreens,  Leaves  of     . 

.      .       20 

Date  palm 

281 

Digger  pine 

239 

Fagus  Americanus 

.      .       42 

Diospyrus  Virgiuiana 

172 

Fibres  of  wood 

.      .       13 

Dogwood,  European 

113 

Ficus  aurea      .      .      .      . 

.      .     167 

Dog^A'ood,  Flowering 

111 

Ficus  elasticus 

.      .     166 

Dogwood,  Jamaica     . 

190 

"Fiddleback"  ash 

.      .     209 

Dogwood,  Western    . 

113 

Figs,  Tiie 

.    165-167 

DogAvoods,  The     .      .      .      .    1] 

L 1-1 14 
258 

Fir,  Balsam     .      .      .      . 

2.53 

Douglas  spruce     .... 

Fir,  Blue 

.      .      257 

Downy  bass  wood 

72 

Fir,  Noble       . 

.      .      256 

Dwarf  juniper       .... 

275 

Fir,  Red     .      .      . 

.      .     254 

Dwarf  maple         .... 

199 

Fir,  Red  {A-  nobUis) 

.      .      256 

Dwarf  sumach 

140 

Fir,  Silver 

.      .      257 

Fir,  White       .      .      .      .' 

.      .      256 

Eastern  arbor-vitae   .      .      .      . 

268 

Fir,  White  (^I.  concolor) 

.      .      257 

Eastern  mountain  ash     . 

116 

Firs,  The 

.   251-257 

Eastern  red  cedar       .      .      .      . 

276 

Flowering  dogAvood    . 

.      .      Ill 

P^astern  service  berry 

159 

"Foxtail"  pines.  The 

.      .     229 

Ebonv,  Texas 

191 

Fraxinus  Americana  . 

.      .     202 

Elder,  Box 

199 

Fraxinus  excelsior 

208 

Elder-leaved  mountain  ash    . 

117 

Fraxinus  nigra 

.      .      204 

Elm,  American 

210 

Fraxinus  Oregona 

.      .      207 

Elm,  Camperdown      .      .      .      . 

216 

Fraxinus  ornus 

.      .     209 

"Elm,  Cork" 

215 

Fraxinus  Pennsylcanica  . 

.      .      205 

Elm,  English 

215 

Fraxinus  Pennsylvanica  ( 

anceo- 

Elm,  Hickory        .... 

21* 

lata) 

.      .     206 

Elm,  Moose 

213 

Fraxinus  quadrangulata  . 

.      .     20« 

286 


GENERAL  INDEX 


PAGE 

Frijolito 192 

Fringe  tree 126 

Gerarde 73 

Gleditsia  triacanihos  ....  180 

Golden  fig 167 

Grain  of  wood 13 

Gray  pine 238 

Great  laurel 119 

Great  laurel  magnolia     .      .      .  104 

Green  ash 206 

"GreteHerball" 73 

Gum,  Cotton 97 

Gum,  Sour  or  Black  ....  96 

Gum,  Sweet 97 

Gum  trees.  The    ....     95-100 

Gymnocladus  dioicus  .  .  .  .  181 
Gymnosperms      ....  217-279 

Hackberries,  The  .  .  .  160-162 
HaTnamelis  Virginiana    .      .      .     134 

"Hard-tack" 86 

Haw,  Black 115,158 

Haw,  Red 157 

Haw,  Scarlet 157-158 

Hawthorns,  The 155-159 

Hazel,  Witch 133 

Heath  family 118 

Hemlocks,  The     ....  259-262 

Hicoria  alba 40 

Eicoria  glabra 41 

Hicoria  lacinata  ....       38 

Hicoria  ovata         37 

Hicoria  Pecan 38 

Hickories,  The 36-41 

Hickory  elm 214 

Hollies.  The 143-146 

Holly,  American 145 

Holly,  European 144 

Honey  locust 179 

Honey  pod 188 

Hop  hornbeam 86 

Hornbeam,  American      ...       85 

Hornbeam,  Hop 86 

Horse  bean 191 

Horse-chestnut  foliage  ...  17 
Horse-chestnuts,  The  .  .  .65-68 
"Horse  sugar" 125 

Icthyomethia  Piscipula  .  .  .  190 
Ilex  aquifolium 144 


Ilex  Opaca 

Ilex  vomitoria 

Incense  cedar 

"Iron  oak" 

"Iron wood,"  see  also  Hornbeam 

Ironwood,  Knowlton's 


Jack  pine  . 
Jamaica  dogwood 
Japanese  persimmon 
Japanese  walnut  . 
"Judas-tree"  . 
Juglans,  Californica 
Juglans  cinerea     . 
Juglans  cordiformis 
Juglans  nigra 
Juglans  regia  . 
Juglans  rwpestris  . 
Juglans  Sieboldiana 
June-berry 
Junipers,  The 
Juniperus  Barbadensis 
Juniperus  communis 
Juniperu^  occidentalis 
Juniperus  Virginiana 


Kaki  c 

Kalm,  Peter 
Kalmia  latifolia    . 
Kentucky  coffee  tree 
Knob-cone  pine 
Knowlton's  ironwood 


Lance-leaved  Cottonwood 
' '  Langues  de  femmes ' ' 
Larches,  The 

Large-leaved  cucmnber  tree 
Larix  Americana  . 
Larix  occidentalis 
Laurel  family 
Laurel,  Great 
Laurel,  Mountain 
Laiu-el  oak       .... 
Laurus  nobilis 
Lawson  cypress    . 

Leaves       

"Lever- wood"      ... 
Librocedus  Decurrens 
Lime,  Common    ... 
"Lime  Trees,"  see  Lindens 
Linden,  American 


PAGE 

145 
145 

270 
52 

87 


.  190 

.  175 

.  33 

.  183 

.  29 

.  30 

.  33 

.  31 

.  33 

.  29 

.  33 

.  159 
274-277 

.  277 

.  275 

.  276 

.  276 


175 

XX 

120 

181 

240 

87 


.  80 
.       81 

277-279 
.  106 
.  278 
.     279 

127-133 
.  119 
.  120 
.  63 
.  129 
.     273 

4, 16-20 


270 

72 

70 


GENERAL  INDEX 


287 


Lindens,  The    . 
Linnaeus    .... 
Liqvidambcr  styraciflua 
Liriodendron  tulipifera 
Live  oak    .... 
Live  oak  (Q.  agri folia) 
Lobloll    pine  . 
Locusts,  The  . 
Lodge-pole  pine    . 
Lombardy  poplar 
Longleaf  pine 

Madrona    . 
Magnoliu  acuminata 
Magnolia,  Campbell's 
Magnolia  foetida 
Magnolia.  Glauca  . 
Magnolia,  Great  laurel 
Magnolia  marrophylla 
Magnolia,  Starry 
Magnolia  stellata 
Magnolia  tripetala 
Magnolia  yulan     . 
Magnolias,  The    . 
Malus  coronaria    . 
Mains  ioensis 
Maple,    "Bird's  eye"   and 

"Curly" 
Maple,  Black  . 
Maple,  Dwarf 
Maple,  Mountain 
Maple,  Norway     . 
Maple,  Oregon 
Maple,  Red     . 
Maple,  Silver 
Maple,  Soft     .      . 
Maple,  Striped     . 
Maple,  Sugar 
Maple,  Sycamore 
Maple,  Vine 
Maple,  Wier's  weeping 
Maples,  The    . 
Melon  papaw 
Mesquite    . 
Mexican  cottonwood 
Mississippi  Valley  chestnut 
Mockcrnut 
Mohrodcndron  diptera 
Mohrodendron  tctraptera 
Monterey  cypress 
Monterey  pine 


P.\GE 

G8-74 
xviii,  7 'J 
97 
109 
56 
C4 
230 
177-184 
245 
77 
232 

121 

107 
103 
104 
105 
104 
106 
103 
103 
108 
102 
101-111 
148 
148 

15 
195 
199 
198 
200 
197 
195 
196 
196 
198 
194 
200 
197 
196 
193-^01 
169 
188 
80 
54 
40 
124 
123 
271 
241 


oak 


Moose  elm 
Morns  alba 
Morns  nigra    . 
Morns  rnbra 
Mountain  ashes    . 
Mountain  elm 
Mountain  hemlock 
Mountain  laurel   . 
Mountain  maple  . 
Mountain  pine 
Moimtain  sumach 
Muir,  John 
Mulberries,  The   . 


PAGE 

.  213 
.  164 
.  165 
.      163 

116-118 
.  215 
.  261 
.  120 
.  198 
.  224 
.  140 
xvi 

163-165 


Names  of  trees      .      ,      ,       xvii-xxiii 

Nanny  berry,  Rusty   .      .      .      .  115 

Narrow-leaved  cottonwood  .      .  80 

"Necklace-bearing"  poplar        .  78 

Nettle  tree,  European     .      .      .  162 

Noble  fir          256 

Nomenclature  of  trees     .       xvii-xxiii 

Norway  maple 200 

Norway  pine 246 

Norway  spruce 248 

Nut  pines 230-232 

Nut  trees.  The 28-74 

Nyssa  aquatica 97 

Nyssa  sylvatica 96 

Oak,  Basket          55 

Oak,  Black 58 

Oak,  Bur 51 

Oak,  California  white      ...  57 

Oak,  Chestnut 53 

Oak,  "Iron" 52 

Oak,  Live 56 

Oak,  Live  (Q.  agrifolia)  ...  64 

Oak,  Mississippi  Valley  chestnut  54 

Oak,  Pacific  post        ....  57 

Oak,  Pin          60 

Oak,  Post 52 


Oak,  Red  .  .  . 
Oak,  "Rock  chestnut' 
Oak,  Scarlet 
Oak,  Single  or  I>aiu^l 
Oak,  Swamp  white  . 
Oak,  White  .  .  . 
Oak,  Willow  .  .  . 
Oak,  "Yellow"  .  . 
Oaks,  BlacJi  .  .  . 
Oaks,  The 


61 
53 
59 
63 
54 
49 
62 
54 
,58-65 
,46-65 


288 


GENERAL  INDEX 


Oaks,  White    .     . 
Ohio  buckeye 
Oilnut  .... 
Old  field  pine 
One-leaved  nut  pine 
Oregon  alder  . 
Oregon  ash 
Oregon  maple 
Oriental  plane 
Osage  orange 
Ostrya  Krunvletoni 
Ostrya  Virginiana 
Oxydendrurn  arboreum 

Pacific  post  oak 
Palms,  The      . 
Palo  verde  acacia 
Papaws,  The  . 
Paper  birch 
Parkinsonia  aculeata 
Pecan  . 
"Pepperidge" 
Persea  Borbonia 
Persea  gratissima 
Persimmons,  The 
Picea  Engelmanni 
Picea  excelsa   . 
Picea  Mariana 
Picea  Parryana 
Picea  rubens 
Picea  Sitchensis 
Pie  cherry 
Pignut 
Pin  cherry . 
Pin  oak 

Pine,  "Big-cone' 
Pine,  Cuban    . 
Pine,  Digger   . 
Pine,  Gray 
Pine,  Jack 
Pine,  Knob-cone 
Pine,  Loblolly 
Pine,  Lodge-pole 
Pine,  Longleaf 
Pine,  Monterey 
Pine,  Mountain 
Pine,  Norway 
Pine,  Old  field 
Pine,  One-leaved  nut 
Pine,  Pitch      .      . 
Pine,  Prickle-cone 


PAGE 

49-58 

67 

30 

236 

231 

93 

207 

197 

95 

99 

87 

86 

122 

57 

280 

190 

167-170 

88 
191 

38 

96 
129 
129 
172-175 
250 
248 
248 
250 
249 
251 
152 

41 
153 

60 
240 
236 
239 
238 
238 
240 
236 
245 
232 
241 
224 
246 
236 
231 
237 
229 


PAGE 

Pine,  Red 246 

"Pine,  Red" 258 

Pine,  Rocky  Mountain  white    .  228 

Pine,  Rosemary 237 

Pine,  Scrub 244 

Pine,  Shortleaf 235 

Pine,  Slash .236 

Pine,  "Southern"      ....  233 

Pine,  Sugar 225 

Pine,  Swamp         236 

Pine,  Tamarack 245 

Pine,  Western  pitch  ....  239 

Pine,  Western  yellow      .      .      .  242 

Pine,  White 222 

Pine, White  bark 228 

Pines,  "Foxtail"        ....  229 

Pmes,  Nut 230-232 

Pines,  The 220-247 

Pinon 230 

Pinus  albicaulis 228 

Pinus  aristata 229 

Pinus  attenuata 240 

Pinus  Balfouriana     ....  229 

Pinus  Caribaea  *         ....  236 

Pinus  cembroides 230 

Pinus  contorta 244 

Pinus  Coulteri 239 

Pinus  divaricata 238 

Pinus  echinata 235 

Pinus  edulis 230 

Pinus  flexilis  t. 228 

Pinus  Lambertiana    ....  225 
Pinus  monophylla       .      .      .      .231 

Pinus  Monticola 224 

Pinus  palustris 232 

Pinus  ponderosa 242 

Pinus  quadrifolia       ....  230 

Pinus  radiata 241 

Pinus  resinosa 246 

Pinus  rigida          237 

Pinus  Sabiniana 239 

Pinus  Strobus 222 

Pinus  Taeda 236 

Pitch  pine 237 

Pitch  pme.  Western        ...  239 

Pitch  pines.  The        ....  232 

Plane,  Oriental 95 

Platanus  occidentalis        ...  93 

Platanu^  orientalis     ....  95 

Plums,  The 149-152 

"Pod-bearers."  The  .     .     .  176-192 


GENERAL  INDEX 


289 


PAGE 

Poison  sumach 141 

Pond  apples,  The, 

170-172 

Poplar,  IJalsam     . 

, 

.       79 

Poplar,  Black        . 

77 

Poplar,  Carolina 

. 

78 

Poplar,  Lombardy 

77 

Poplar,  "Necklace-bearing" 

78 

Poplar,  Silver-leaved 

76 

Poplar,  White       .      .      . 

76 

Poplars,  The   .      . 

75-81 

Populus  acuminata 

80 

Populus  alba   . 

76 

Populus  angustifolia 

80 

Populus  halsamijera 

79 

Populus  deltoidca 

77 

PopvJus  heterophyUa 

81 

Populus  Mcxicana 

80 

Populus  nigra 

77 

Populus  tremuLoides 

78 

Populus  irichocarpa 

80 

Post  oak    .      .      . 

52 

Prairie  crab     .      . 

148 

Prickle-cone  pine 

229 

Prickwood 

137 

Prosopis  pubescens 

189 

Prosopis  Tuliflora 

188 

Prunus  Americanua 

150 

Prunus  avium 

152 

Prunus  cerasus 

152 

Prunus  nigra' . 

151 

Prunus  Pennsylvanica     . 

153 

Prunus  pseudo-Cerasus    . 

152 

Prunus  serotina     . 

153 

Prunus  Virginiana     . 

154 

Pscudotsuga  mucronala 

258 

Pussy  willow  .... 

84 

Quaking  asp    .... 

78 

Quercus  acuminata     . 

54 

Quercus  agrifolia  - . 

.       64 

Quercus  alba 

.       49 

Quercus  chrysolepis     . 

.       63 

Quercus  coccinca   . 

.       59 

Quercus  (hirryana 

.       57 

Quercus  lobata .... 

.       57 

Quercus  macrocarpa    . 

.       51 

Quercus  Michauxii     . 

.       55 

Quercus  minor 

.       52 

Quercus  palustris  . 

60 

Quercus  Phellos     . 

62 

Quercus  platanoides 

. 

.       54 

PAGE 

Quercus  prinus 53 

Quercus  rubra 01 

Quercus  veluiina    .      .      '      '      .  58 

Quercus  Virginiana  ...  66 


Ram's  horn  ash          ....  209 

Red  alder 93 

Red  ash 205 

Red  bay 129 

Red  birch 90 

Red  cedar 269 

Red  cedar.  Eastern    .      .      .      .276 

Red  elm 213 

Red  fir 254 

Red  fir  (A.  nobilis)    ....  256 

Rew  haw 157 

Red  juniper 277 

Red  maple 195 

Red  mulberry 163 

Red  oak 61 

Red  pine 246 

"Red  pine" 258 

Red  plum.  Wild 150 

Red  spruce 249 

Redbud 182 

Redwood 266 

Retama 191 

Rhododendron 118 

Rhododendron  maximum        .      .  110 

Bhus  copaUina 140 

Rhus  glabra 141 

Rhus  hirta 138 

Rhis  Vernix 141 

Rings,  The  Annual    ....  12 

River  birch 90 

Robinia  Pseudacacia  .      .      .      .  178 

Robinia  viscosa 179 

"Rock  chestnut"  oak     ...  53 

Rock  elm 214 

Rocky  Mountain  white  pine       .  228 

Rose  bay 119 

Rosemary  pine 237 

Rowan  tree 117 

Royal  palm 280 

Rubber  j)Iant 160 

Rum  cherry 153 

Rusty  nannybcrry      .      .      .      .115 

Salix  Babylonica 83 

Salix  discolor  ......  84 


290 


GENERAL  INDEX 


PAGE 

Sap 6 

Sargent,  Professor     .     .     .     .  xxi 

Sassafras 130 

Scarlet  haw 157 

Scarlet  oak 59 

Scientific  names xvii 

Scotch  elm 216 

Screw-bean 189 

Screw-pod 189 

Scrub  pine 244 

Seaside  alder 92 

Sequoia  sempervirens       .     ,      .  266 

Sequoia  Wellingtonia  .  .  .  263 
Sequoias,  The  ...  262-268 
Service-berries,  The  \     .     .  159-160 

Shad-bush 159 

Shagbark .37 

Shaw  botanical  garden   .     .     .  xiv 

Sheepberry 114 

Shellbark 37 

SheUbark,  Big 38 

Shingle  oak 63 

Shortleaf  pine 235 

"Silvaof  North  America"  .     .  xxi 

Silver  beU  trees 123 

Silver  fir 257 

Silver-leaved  poplar*.     ...  76 

Silver  maple 196 

Silver  wattle 187 

Slash  pine 236 

Slippery  elm 213 

Small-leaved  ehn       ....  215 

Smoke  tree 142 

Smooth  sumach 141 

Snowdrop  tree 124 

"Snowdrop  tree"       ....  123 

Soft  maple 196 

Soft  pines 222-229 

Sophora  secundiflora  ....  192 
Sorbus  Americana      ...      .116 

Sorbits  Aucwparia      ,      ...  117 

Sorbus  sambucifolia   .      .     .      .  117 

Sorrel  tree 122 

Sour  gum 96 

Sour-wood 122 

"Southern"  pine       ....  233 

Southwestern  walnut       ...  29 

"Species  plantarum"       .      .      .  xix 

Spruce,  Black 248 

Spruce,  Blue 250 

Spruce,  Douglas 258 


Spruce,  Engelinann 
Spruce,  Norway   . 
Spruce,  Red    . 
Spruce,  Tideland 
Spruces,  The  . 
Staghorn  sumach 
Starch  .... 
Starry  magnolia  . 
Striped  maple. 
Sugar  maple    . 
Sugar  pine 

Sumach,  Black  dwarf 
Sumach,  Dwarf    . 
Sumach,  Mountain 
Sumach,  Poison    . 
Siunach,  Smooth 
Sumach,  Staghorn 
Sumachs,  The 
Swamp  bay     . 
Swamp  Cottonwood 
Swamp  pine    . 
Swamp  white  oak 
Sweet  buckeye     . 
Sweet  cherry  ,     . 
Sweet  gum 
Sweet  leaf 
Sycamore  maple  . 
Sycamores,  The   . 
Symplocos  tinctoria 


Tamarack  pine     . 
Tamaracks,  The  . 
"Tassel  trees"     . 
Taxodium  distichum 
Texas  ebony   . 
Thuya  ocddenialis 
Thuya  plicata 
Tideland  spruce   . 
Tilia  Americana  . 
Tilia  heterophylla 
Tilia  pubescens     . 
TUia  vulgaris  .     . 
Toxylon  pomiferum 
Transpiration 
Trees,  Bark  of      . 
Trees,  Breathing  of 
Trees,  Buds  of 
Trees,  Chemistry  of 
Trees,  Food  of 
Trees,  Growth  of 
Trees,  How  to  know  the 


xiv-xvi 


GENERAL  INDEX 


291 


Trees  in  winter     . 
Trees,  Leaves  of  . 
Trees,  Life  of    . 
Trees,  Names  of 
Trees,  Opposite-leaved 
Trees,  Sap  of  . 
Trembling  aspen  . 
Tsuga  Canadensis 
Tsuga  heterophylla 
Tsuga  Martetuiiana 
Tulip  tree 
**  Tupelo"  . 


Ulmus  alata 
Ulmus  Americana 
Vhnus  campestris 
Ulmiis  fulva     . 
Ulmus  montana     . 
Ulmus  Thomasi    . 
Umbrella  tree 


Vihumum  lentago. 
Viburnum  prunifolium 
Viburnum  rufidulum 
Viburnums,  The  . 
Vine  maple 
"Virgilia"       .      .      . 


Wahoo       .... 
"Wahoo" 

Wabut,  Black      .      . 
Walnut,  California     . 
Walnut,  English . . 
Walnut,  Japanese 
Walnut,  Southwestern 
Walnut,  White     .      . 
Walnuts,  The        .      . 
"Water  beech"     . 
Wattles,  The  .      .      .^ 
Weeping  maple,  Wier's 
Weeping  willow 
Western  doguood 
Western  hemlock 
Western  juniper   . 
Western  larch . 


PAGE 

20-27 

ltJ-20 

3-27 

xvii-xxiii 

XV 

6 
78 
260 
261 
261 
109 
96 


215 
210 
215 
213 
216 
214 
108 

114 
115 
115 
114 
197 
183 


137 

215 

31 

29 

33 

33 

29 

30 

.28-35 

85 

184-187 

196 

83 

113 

261 

276 

279 


PAGE 

Western  pitch  pine    ....  239 

Western  service-berry      .      .      .  160 

Western  yellow  pine        .      .      .  242 

White  ash 202 

White-bark  pine         ....  228 

White  basswood 71 

White  birch 89 

White  cedar 272 

White  elm 210 

White  fir 256 

White  fir  (A.  (xmeolor)     ...  267 

White  mulberry 164 

White  oak 49 

White  oak  group        .      .      .      .49-58 

White  pine 222 

White  pine.  Rocky  Mountain    .  228 

White  poplar 76 

White  walnut 30 

Wier's  weeping  maple     .      .  196 

"Wild  banana  tree"        ...  169 

Wild  black  cherry      ....  153 

Wild  cherry 153 

Wild  crab 148 

Wild  red  plum 150 

Willow  oak 62 

Willow,  Pussy 84 

Willow,  Weeping        ....  83 

Willows,  The 81-84 

Winged  elm 215 

Winter,  Trees  in  • 20-27 

"Winter  berries" 143 

Witch  hazel 133 

Wood 12-16 

Wych  elm 216 

Yaupon 145 

Yellow  birch 89 

Yellow  locust 178 

"Yellow  oak" 54 

Yellow  pine.  Western      .      .      .  242 

Yellow  plum 150 

Yellow- wood 183 

Yulan  magnolia 102 

Zigia  Jlcxicaulis    .      .      «      „      .  191 


